At a glance

Intervention Risk reduction & resistance education in tertiary education settings

Key populations Adult women who are university or college students

Outcomes studied Gender-based violence; health; behaviours; knowledge, beliefs and attitudes; wellbeing and emotions; relationships

Impact of the intervention Of the 18 studies, 9 outcomes received an effectiveness rating on our Effectiveness Estimate Tool

Australian Evidence None of the studies presented findings from Australia

Risk of bias Primary studies with available quantitative data: 1 moderate, 11 moderate-high, 2 high & 1 very high risk of bias (Risk of Bias tool) Systematic reviews were rated as moderate and critically low confidence ( AMSTAR-2 tool )

Intervention description

What are the key characteristics of the intervention?

Sexual violence resistance education programs seek to provide women university students with information about sexual violence, the associated risks, and practical self-protective strategies to avoid victimisation or increase personal safety. They also focus on ways to decrease self-blame for women who may have experienced sexual violence. Nearly all programs focused their content on risk reduction of sexual violence perpetrated by “acquaintances” or those known to participants such as classmates, friends and ex- or current intimate partners, rather than strangers.

The programs share common core elements, and generally involve:

• providing definitions, statistics, and information about the prevalence of sexual violence, both nation-wide and specific to college populations
• describing risk factors for sexual violence
• dispelling rape myths
• teaching assertiveness and boundaries in sexual situations
• addressing psychological obstacles to women’s resistance
• sharing resources available for women on campus.

Programs often include a component on verbal and physical resistance for sexual violence and feminist self-defence. They generally develop skills in awareness and body language, verbal, and physical techniques for forceful resistance.

Some interventions integrate multiple components of risk reduction from previously tested programs with additional content on emancipatory and positive sexual education that teaches participants about healthy sexual relationships, sex positivity and empowering women’s sexuality.

Some argue that the focus on educating women on strategies to prevent or reduce their own risk of sexual violence victimisation amounts to programs being inherently “victim-blaming”. Others argue that this intervention forms part of a comprehensive approach to prevention to empower women with the knowledge and skills to reduce their potential risk of victimisation.

There has been a shift over time in this thinking, with earlier programs mostly covering content on women’s own resistance to sexual violence. Meanwhile, more recent programs have evolved to include a stronger emphasis on placing the blame firmly with the perpetrator , not victims and survivors.

What does the intervention involve?

Where is the intervention set? Tertiary education settings, including universities and colleges

How is the intervention delivered? By a peer student facilitator or a professional (or both) who are women, in face-to-face groups of 15-30 participants. Often delivered via a presentation or video with interactive activities.

How frequently is the intervention delivered? Varying frequency and duration, ranging from a single 1-hour session to multiple sessions (i.e., 3-4) up to 12 hours in length.

What resources and costs are involved? None of the included studies commented on the costs associated with the intervention.

Theory of change

How is the intervention designed or theorised to work?

The programs in this Intervention Review are based on a number of psychological and behavioural theories, such as: social learning theory, the elaboration likelihood model, the health belief model social cognitive theory, and the theory of planned behaviour. Importantly, the theory of change behind these interventions is firmly grounded in feminist principles and has a strong focus on gender, power and control.

The general premise of these interventions is that providing education about the risk of sexual violence posed to women in tertiary education settings and equipping them with resistance strategies (such as verbal and physical resistance) will reduce potential sexual violence as well as any subsequent self-blame from victimisation.

Most of the programs are based on a sexual assault resistance model called “Assess, Acknowledge, Act”, which encourages women to follow several steps to assess, acknowledge, and act in response to threatening sexual situations. It posits that perpetrators are responsible for sexual assault, but women can nonetheless reduce their risk and implement resistance strategies.

Interventions that include additional components like positive sexuality education or self-defence, focused on physical and verbal resistance tactics are underpinned by principles of empowerment.

Impact

This section speaks to the effectiveness of the studies.

The outcomes measured by the included studies include gender-based violence, health, behaviours, knowledge, beliefs and attitudes, wellbeing and emotions, and relationships.

Fifteen primary studies had available quantitative data and were assessed for risk of bias on the ANROWS-IRIS tool. Of these, one received a rating of moderate risk of bias, 11 received a rating of moderate-high, two received a rating of high, and one received a rating of very high.

This means only one study with moderate risk of bias and appropriate outcome data was used for the effectiveness estimate. This study examined the effectiveness of both an enhanced version of the Assess, Acknowledge, Act Sexual Assault Resistance program as well as a basic version of the same program. It conducted a 3-arm randomised controlled trial, comparing both the enhanced and basic programs to the same group of control participants. Results are reported for both versions of the program and across three time-points (immediately post-intervention, 3 months follow-up, and 6 months follow-up).

Although many of the critically appraised studies were randomised controlled trials or quasi-experimental studies, they tended to be rated as a high or moderate risk of bias on the ANROWS-IRIS domains of selection bias, withdrawals and drop-outs, confounders, and intervention fidelity.

In terms of selection bias, some studies included participants that self-selected into the intervention or were not likely to be representative of women university students broadly. Studies also tended not to assess equivalence between the intervention and control groups. Many studies provided no information about whether the students who dropped out of the intervention or control groups were different.

Some studies had cross-contamination, whereby some participants in an intervention group shared knowledge or skills gained via the program with participants in the control group, undermining the integrity of the intervention. Overall, these risks of bias hamper our ability to draw accurate conclusions about the effectiveness of interventions.

Two meta-analyses included in this intervention review were critically appraised on the AMSTAR 2 tool, of which one received a rating of moderate confidence, and one received a rating of critically low confidence.

The moderate rated meta-analysis examined educational programs for preventing violence among both adolescents and young adults in a range of settings (e.g., high schools, universities). It was not possible to include this meta-analysis in the Effectiveness Estimate Scale because the authors did not conduct subgroup analyses. That is, they did not analyse the impact of the intervention specifically by gender or setting to determine whether sexual violence resistance education programs designed for women university students specifically worked. While they intended to do these analyses, not enough studies presented results by gender for it to be possible.

Overall effectiveness of the intervention

The table below shows the effectiveness of the intervention.

✅ = Most systematic reviews and studies show effectiveness
🟢 = Most studies show effectiveness
🟨 = Most systematic reviews and studies show no effect
🟡 = Most studies show no effect
⛔ = Potentially harmful
🔵 = Mixed evidence
✖ = Insufficient causal evidence
🕓 = Not yet rated

Effectiveness rating	Outcome	Description
	Fear of rape	There was no effect of both programs on participants’ fear of rape. There was no significant effect between groups when comparing the enhanced Assess, Acknowledge, Act Sexual Assault Resistance program to the control group. This was true at all timepoints (post-test, 3 months and 6 months). There was no significant effect between groups when comparing the basic Assess, Acknowledge, Act Sexual Assault Resistance program to the control group. This was true at all timepoints (post-test, 3 months and 6 months).
	Perceived personal risk of sexual assault	The study showed decreased perceived risk of rape or sexual assault. There was a positive significant effect of the enhanced Assess, Acknowledge, Act Sexual Assault Resistance program on perceived risk of rape compared to the control group. This was true at all timepoints (post-test, 3 months and 6 months). There was a positive significant effect of the basic Assess, Acknowledge, Act Sexual Assault Resistance program on perceived risk of rape compared to the control group. This was true at all timepoints (post-test, 3 months and 6 months).
	Sexual assertiveness	There was no effect of both programs on participants’ sexual assertiveness. There was a significant effect between groups when comparing the enhanced Assess, Acknowledge, Act Sexual Assault Resistance program to the control group at the 3-month mark. However, this was not sustained at the 6-month mark, which had no effect between groups. There was no significant effect between groups when comparing the basic Assess, Acknowledge, Act Sexual Assault Resistance program to the control group. This was true at all timepoints (3 months and 6 months).
	Defence tactic: resistance	The study showed increased use of direct resistance as a defence tactic. This was measured post-intervention only, so longer term (e.g., 3- or 6-month change) cannot be established. There was a positive significant effect of the enhanced Assess, Acknowledge, Act Sexual Assault Resistance program on use of direct resistance compared to the control group. There was a positive significant effect of the basic Assess, Acknowledge, Act Sexual Assault Resistance program on use of direct resistance compared to the control group.
	Defence tactic: forceful verbal tactics	The study showed increased use of forceful verbal defence tactics. There was a positive significant effect of the enhanced Assess, Acknowledge, Act Sexual Assault Resistance program on use of verbal tactics compared to the control group. There was a positive significant effect of the enhanced Assess, Acknowledge, Act Sexual Assault Resistance program on use of verbal tactics compared to the control group.
	Defence tactic: forceful physical tactics	The study showed increased use of forceful physical defence tactics. There was a positive significant effect of the enhanced Assess, Acknowledge, Act Sexual Assault Resistance program on use of physical tactics compared to the control group. There was a positive significant effect of the enhanced Assess, Acknowledge, Act Sexual Assault Resistance program on use of physical tactics compared to the control group.
	Self-defence efficacy	The study showed increased self-defence efficacy, measured by asking participants about their confidence to take action in various scenarios. There was a positive significant effect of the enhanced Assess, Acknowledge, Act Sexual Assault Resistance program on self-defence efficacy compared to the control group. This was true at both 3-months and 6-months. There was a positive significant effect of the basic Assess, Acknowledge, Act Sexual Assault Resistance program on self-defence efficacy compared to the control group at 3-months. There was no effect at 6-months.
	Sexual assault risk detection in a hypothetical situation	There was no effect of both programs on participants’ sexual assault risk detection in a hypothetical situation. There was no effect of either the enhanced or basic Assess, Acknowledge, Act Sexual Assault Resistance program on sexual assault risk detection in a hypothetical situation immediately post-intervention.
	Avoidance of ‘close calls’ for sexual assault	The study showed increased avoidance of ‘close calls’ for sexual assault. This was not reported for the enhanced Assess, Acknowledge, Act Sexual Assault Resistance program. For the basic Assess, Acknowledge, Act Sexual Assault Resistance program, there was a positive significant effect observed between groups at post-test, 3-months, and 6-months follow-up.

Key Populations

Has the impact of this intervention been tested with certain key populations?

This Intervention Review assessed the impact of sexual violence resistance education for women in tertiary education settings. Participants are cohorts of university or college students, mostly first-year students ranging in age from 18 to 21 years. Many participants were drawn from cohorts that were studying psychology courses. The interventions were not designed for any specific cultural or ethnic groups, or for people with physical or mental disabilities or health conditions. Many of the programs were delivered to students who were white, young and single.

The table below gives an overview of whether or not the intervention was examined with some key populations. The inclusion of these populations was guided by the National Plan to End Violence against Women and Children 2022-2032 and the Australian National Research Agenda to End Violence against Women and Children: 2023-2028.

🔴 = no studies
🟡 = at least 1 study mentions that population, but effectiveness wasn't tested with that population
🟢 = at least 1 study tests effectiveness with the population

Population	What do we know about this group?	Degree of knowledge
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities	0 studies examine the effectiveness of the intervention with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities. Therefore, we cannot confirm the applicability of this intervention to this population.
Sexuality and gender diverse / LGBTIQA+	0 studies examine the effectiveness of the intervention with sexuality and gender diverse/LGBTIQA+ communities. Therefore, we cannot confirm the applicability of this intervention to this population.
Specific age groups (including older people, children and young people)	All studies examined the effectiveness of the intervention with young women aged up to 25 years.
Culturally and linguistically diverse (CALD) groups	0 studies examine the effectiveness of the intervention with CALD groups. Therefore, we cannot confirm the applicability of this intervention to this population.
Migrants and refugees	0 studies examine the effectiveness of the intervention with migrant and refugee communities. Therefore, we cannot confirm the applicability of this intervention to this population.
People with disability	0 studies examine the effectiveness of the intervention with people with disability. Therefore, we cannot confirm the applicability of this intervention to this population.

Key considerations

This section summarises factors that may contribute to study results, factors that may be considered to facilitate better outcomes, and the transferability of the intervention to an Australian context.

What do we know about the intervention in Australia?

• Absence of Australian research: None of the studies were conducted in Australia; they were all were based in the United States or Canada. Therefore, further research is needed to determine the effectiveness and acceptability in an Australian context.

• College culture in the United States and Canada: The United States, Canada and Australia share similar tertiary education characteristics as well as high levels of reported sexual violence, particularly in residential college settings. However, despite the parallels in university and college cultures within these countries the transferability of the interventions to Australia has not yet been established Therefore, further research is required to determine how transferable or acceptable these interventions are for Australian tertiary education settings.

• Diversity of tertiary education settings: The interventions were tested in university and college settings across the United States and Canada. None of the interventions were tested in the other comparable forms of tertiary education available in Australia, such as Technical and Further Education (TAFE), community colleges or other vocational education settings.

What should Australian stakeholders consider?

Available evidence considerations:

• Lack of research on diverse populations: : Most study participants were first-year university/college students aged 18 to 21 years, who are in the age group of individuals at the highest risk of sexual assault. Many students were overwhelmingly White, ranging from 71% to 96% of the sample in studies that reported sociodemographic features.

  
  There are gaps in knowledge regarding the effect of the intervention on groups such as mature-aged and/or postgraduate, racially and ethnically diverse, and disabled students. Due to the inherent nature of the intervention being designed for tertiary education settings, it is unclear whether the intervention could be transferred to other settings (e.g., high schools or workplaces).

• Risk of bias in evidence:: Future research should seek to address the risk of bias present in the exiting evidence base by using probability sampling methods, providing transparent reporting of participant drop-out and control for confounding factors.

Implementation considerations

• Intervention facilitators: The vast majority of programs in this Intervention Review were delivered by peers such as fellow students or graduates, who were all women. The interventions were often co-delivered by two or more peer facilitators, who were highly trained often for 20+ hours prior to the intervention. Some study authors posit that peer educators may be considered more relatable to their fellow students, while emphasising the importance of adequate training to ensure that are regarded with credibility.
• History of victimisation: Some studies examined participants’ prior history of sexual violence and found a proportion of students had already experienced victimisation. Given the high prevalence of existing sexual violence on university and college settings, implementers should appropriately account for the women students that have prior victimisation in future program development. Implementers may consider providing access to additional resources or support for these women.
• Resourcing: This intervention involves the recruitment and training of peer educators or professional facilitators, as well as the development or provision of audiovisual or printed materials. It was not possible to determine the cost effectiveness, given none of the studies reported on the costs associated with implementation.

Included studies

Characteristics of primary studies included in the Intervention Review

Study and location	Design	Intervention	Sample	Risk of bias rating
Anderson & Whiston (2005)	Systematic review Type of analysis:Meta-analysis Search period:Not reported, studies published from 1978 to 2002	Sexual assault education programs N Included studies:69 Included research design:Randomised controlled trials and quasi-experimental studies Countries:United States only	N=18,172 College students, 48.7% women, mean age 20.3 years	Gender-based violence; knowledge, beliefs and attitudes
Breitenbecher & Gidycz (1998) United States	Randomised controlled trial Comparison: No treatment Qualitative data: No	Sexual assault risk reduction program with education on the prevalence of sexual violence, discussion of risk factors and information on risk reduction strategies Duration and format: A single 90-minute group session delivered face-to-face, facilitator details not reported Setting: Tertiary education Cost:Not reported	N=406 Adult women university students enrolled in psychology courses, 73% aged 18-19 years, 95% White	Behaviours; relationships
Breitenbecher & Scarce (1999) United States	Randomised controlled trial Comparison: No treatment Qualitative data: No	Sexual assault risk-reduction program for women based on the prevalence of sexual violence, existence of rape myths, vignettes, developing a redefinition or rape and response strategies to reduce risk based on lecture and facilitated discussion Duration and format: A single 1-hour group session delivered face-to-face by a graduate student Setting:Tertiary education Cost:Not reported	N=275 Adult women university students, 72% aged 18-21 years	Gender-based violence; knowledge, beliefs and attitudes
Breitenbecher & Scarce (2001) United States	Randomised controlled trial Comparison: No treatment Qualitative data: No	Sexual assault risk-reduction program for women based on the prevalence of sexual violence, existence of rape myths, vignettes, developing a redefinition or rape and response strategies to reduce risk based on lecture and facilitated discussion Duration and format: A single 90-minute group session delivered face-to-face, facilitator details not reported Setting:Tertiary education Cost:Not reported	N=117 Adult women university students, 72% aged 18-21 years, 81% White	Gender-based violence; knowledge, beliefs and attitudes; relationships
Crann et al. (2022) Canada	Qualitative study	Enhanced Assess, Acknowledge, Act, an educational sexual assault resistance program, teaches women how to identify risk for sexual assault, overcome emotional barriers to resistance, verbal and physical self-defence techniques, and emancipatory sexuality education, all featuring a series of lectures, discussions, games and activities Duration and format: Total of 12 hours, based on four units of 3-hour groups delivered face-to-face by a pair of trained female graduate student facilitators Setting: Tertiary education Cost: Not reported	N=445 Adult women university students, 72.8% White	Behaviours; knowledge, beliefs and attitudes
Fellmeth et al. (2013)	Systematic review Type of analysis:Meta-analysis Search period:Start date not reported, end date 2012	Sexual assault and intimate partner violence prevention educational and skills-based interventions N Included studies:38 Included research design:Randomised controlled trials and quasi-experimental studies Countries:Any country	N=15,903 Adolescents aged 12 to 18 years, all genders	Gender-based violence; health; knowledge, beliefs and attitudes
Gidycz et al. (2001) United States	Randomised controlled trial Comparison: No treatment Qualitative data: No	Ohio University's Sexual Assault Risk Reduction Project,, a didactic and interactive program including a presentation, two videos, role plays, discussion of definitions and statistics of sexual assault, risk factors, psychological barriers to resistance, post-assault reactions and a feminist self-defence workshop focused on physical and verbal resistance tactics Duration and format: A single 3-hour face-to-face group session peer-led by two trained female graduate students Setting:Tertiary education Cost:Not reported	N=762 Adult women university students, studying psychology, aged 18-21 years, 93.7% White	Gender-based violence; wellbeing and emotions; behaviours; relationships
Gidycz et al. (2006) United States	Randomised controlled trial Comparison: Waitlist Qualitative data: No	Ohio University's Sexual Assault Risk Reduction Project,, a modified version of Gidycz et al. (2001), including an additional self-defence component and booster session Duration and format: A 7-hour face-to-face group program peer-led by two trained female graduate students Setting:Tertiary education Cost:Not reported	N=500 Adult women university students, studying psychology, 88% aged 18-19 years, 93% White	Gender-based violence; wellbeing and emotions; behaviours; relationships
Gidycz et al. (2015) United States	Randomised controlled trial Comparison: Waitlist Qualitative data: No	Ohio University's Sexual Assault Risk Reduction Project,, (updated since piloted by Gidycz et al., 2001; 2006), a 3-part intervention consisting of (1) a didactic and interactive program including presentation, videos, role play and discussion of definitions and statistics of sexual assault, risk factors, psychological barriers to resistance, post-sexual assault reactions; (2) feminist self-defence workshop focused on physical and verbal resistance tactics; and (3) a booster revision course Duration and format: A 7-hour program delivered in three face-to-face group sessions peer-led by two female graduate students trained for 20-25 hours Setting: Tertiary education Cost: Not reported	N=650 Adult women university first-year students, 98.5% aged 18-19 years, 91.8% White	Gender-based violence; behaviours
Holtzman & Menning (2019) United States	Quasi-experimental study Comparison: No treatment Qualitative data: No	Elemental,, sexual assault prevention and risk reduction program involving sexual communication and verbal and physical self-protection techniques that uses videos, simulations and discussions Duration and format: A single 6-hour group face-to-face seminar delivered by a facilitator trained for 25 hours, also open to male students Setting: Tertiary education Cost: Not reported	N=539 Adult women university students, 80% White	Gender-based violence; behaviours
McManus (2015) United States	Randomised controlled trial Comparison: Another active intervention, Sexual Assault Prevention Psychoeducation Qualitative data: No	Sexual Assertiveness Skills Training, an interactive training session including behavioural rehearsal of resistance and refusal strategies to sexual assault using vignettes and role play Duration and format: Two 90-minute individual training sessions, peer-led by a student and delivered face-to-face Setting:Tertiary education Cost:Not reported	N=136 Adult women university students, mean age 19.57 years, 71% White	Gender-based violence; knowledge; beliefs and attitudes; behaviours
Menning & Holtzman (2015) United States	Quasi-experimental study Comparison: No treatment Qualitative data: No	Elemental,, see Holtzman & Menning (2019) Duration and format: A single 6-hour group face-to-face seminar delivered by a trained facilitator, also open to male students Setting: Tertiary education v Cost: Not reported	N=331 Adult women university students	Gender-based violence; behaviours
Newins & White (2021) United States	Randomised controlled trial Comparison: Passive intervention, an 18-minute video on time management followed by discussion Qualitative data: Yes	A sexual violence risk reduction program, including a video called I Thought It Could Never Happen to Me, providing women with information about and risk factors of sexual assault, and discussion about resistance techniques Duration and format: A single 1-hour session consisting of an 18.5-minute video followed by a group face-to-face discussion Setting:Tertiary education Cost:Not reported	N=300 Adult women university students, 91.7% aged 18-19 years, 96% White	Gender-based violence; behaviours; relationships; knowledge; beliefs and attitudes
Orchowski et al. (2008) United States	Randomised controlled trial Comparison: Passive intervention, a peer-based vaccine preventable disease education and awareness program Qualitative data: : No	Ohio University's Sexual Assault Risk Reduction Project, see Gidycz et al. (2015) Duration and format: A 7-hour program delivered in three face-to-face group sessions peer-led by two female graduate students trained for 20-25 hours Setting:Tertiary education Cost:Not reported	N=300 Adult women university students, 91.7% aged 18-19 years, 96% White	Gender-based violence; behaviours; relationships; knowledge; beliefs and attitudes
Raymond (2019) United States	Quasi-experimental study Comparison: No treatment Qualitative data: No	Relationships, Sexuality, and Violence Prevention (RSVP), didactic education, videos, and collaborative discussion of rape myths, positive sexuality, sexual agency and female desire, and rehearsal of verbal assertiveness in various self-defence scenarios Duration and format: A total of 12 hours, based on four 3-hour modules delivered to face-to-face in groups led by two trained female graduate student co-facilitators Setting:Tertiary education Cost:Not reported	N=173 Adult women university students; mean age 20.8 years; 92.5% White	Knowledge; beliefs and attitudes; behaviours; relationships
Raymond & Hutchison (2019) United States	Quasi-experimental study Comparison: Waitlist Qualitative data: Yes	Relationships, Sexuality, and Violence Prevention (RSVP), see Raymond (2019) Duration and format: A total of 12 hours, based on four 3-hour modules delivered to face-to-face in groups by a trained female graduate students facilitators Setting:Tertiary education Cost:Not reported	N=63 Adult women university students; mean age 22.98 years; 87.3% White	Gender-based violence; wellbeing and emotions; behaviours; relationships
Senn et al. (2011) Canada	Randomised controlled trial Comparison: No treatment Qualitative data: No	Intervention 1: Assess, Acknowledge, Act Program, a sexual assault resistance program featuring a series of lectures, discussions, games and activities based on risk assessment, problem-solving, sexual communication and resistance Duration and format: Total of 9 hours, based on three units of 3-hour groups delivered face-to-face by a trained female graduate student facilitator Setting:Tertiary education Cost:Not reported Intervention 2: Enhanced Assess, Acknowledge, Act Program, an enhanced version of the sexual assault resistance described above with an additional 3-hour unit focused on sexuality and relationships Duration and format: Total of 12 hours, based on four units of 3-hour groups delivered face-to-face by a trained female graduate student facilitator Setting:Tertiary education Cost:Not reported	N=224 Adult women university students, mean age 18.89 years, 81% White	Gender-based violence, knowledge; beliefs and attitudes; behaviours; wellbeing and emotions
Senn et al. (2013; 2015; 2017; 2021; 2022) Canada	Randomised controlled trial Comparison: Passive intervention; brochures related to sexual assault and legal and medical advice for victims/ survivors (considered treatment-as-usual for women students on campus) Qualitative data: : No	Enhanced Assess, Acknowledge, Act Program, an educational sexual assault resistance program, teaches women how to identify risk for sexual assault, overcome emotional barriers to resistance, verbal and physical self-defence techniques, and emancipatory sexuality education, all featuring a series of lectures, discussions, games and activities Duration and format: Total of 12 hours, based on four units of 3-hour groups delivered face-to-face by a pair of trained female graduate student facilitators Setting:Tertiary education Cost:Not reported	N=893 Adult women first-year university students, mean age 18.5 years, 73% White	Gender-based violence; behaviours; knowledge; beliefs and attitudes; wellbeing and emotions

References and further reading

Included Studies

Primary studies

• Breitenbecher, K. H., & Scarce, M. (1999). A longitudinal evaluation of the effectiveness of a sexual assault education program. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 14 (5), 459-478. https://doi.org/10.1177/088626099014005001


• Breitenbecher, K. H., & Scarce, M. (2001). An evaluation of the effectiveness of a sexual assault education program focusing on psychological barriers to resistance. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 16 (5), 387-407. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/088626001016005001


• Crann, S. E., Senn, C. Y., Radtke, H. L., & Hobden, K. L. (2022). “I felt powerful and confident”: Women’s use of what they learned in feminist sexual assault resistance education. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 46(2), 147-161. https://doi.org/10.1177/03616843211043948


• Gidycz, C. A., Lynn, S. J., Rich, C. L., Marioni, N. L., Loh, C., Blackwell, L. M., Stafford, J., Fite, R., & Pashdag, J. (2001). The evaluation of a sexual assault risk reduction program: A multisite investigation. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 69(6), 1073–1078. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-006x.69.6.1073


• Gidycz, C. A., Orchowski, L. M., Probst, D. R., Edwards, K. M., Murphy, M., Tansill, E. (2015). Concurrent administration of sexual assault prevention and risk reduction programming: Outcomes for women. Violence Against Women, 21(6), 780-800. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801215576579


• Gidycz, C. A., Rich, C. L., Orchowski, L., King, C., & Miller, A. K. (2006). The evaluation of a sexual assault self-defense and risk-reduction program for college women: A prospective study. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 30(2), 173-186. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2006.00280.x


• Holtzman, M., & Menning, C. L. (2019). Developments in sexual assault resistance education: Combining risk reduction and primary prevention. Journal of Applied Social Science, 13(1), 45839. https://doi.org/10.1177/1936724419826305


• Layman-Guadalupe M. J. (1996). Evaluation of an acquaintance rape awareness program: Differential impact upon acknowledged and unacknowledged rape victims. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Ohio University, Athens.


• McManus, E. S. (2015). Evaluating sexual assault prevention training programs for college women [Doctoral dissertation, West Michigan University]. https://scholarworks.wmich.edu/dissertations/744


• Menning, C., & Holtzman, M. (2015). Combining primary prevention and risk reduction approaches in sexual assault protection programming. Journal of American College Health, 63(8), 513-522, https://doi.org/10.1080/07448481.2015.1042881


• Newins, A. R., White, S. W. (2021). A brief computer-based sexual assault risk reduction program: A feasibility, acceptability, and preliminary efficacy pilot study. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 36(9/10), 4854-4875. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260518792974


• Raymond, N. M. (2019). The effects of a sex positive sexual violence prevention program on college women [Doctoral dissertation, University of North Dakota]. https://commons.und.edu/theses/4114


• Raymond, N. M. & Hutchison, A. N. (2019). A pilot test of the effectiveness of an integrated sex positive education program. American Journal of Sexuality Education, 14(3), 315-341, https://doi.org/10.1080/15546128.2019.1584870


• Senn, C. Y., Barata, P. C., Eliasziw, M., Hobden, K. L., Radtke, H. L., Thurston, W. E., & Newby-Clark, I.R. (2021). Sexual assault resistance education’s benefits for survivors of attempted and completed rape. Women & Therapy, 45, 47 - 73. https://doi.org/10.1080/02703149.2021.1971425


• Senn, C. Y., Eliasziw, M., Barata, P. C., Thurston, W. E., Newby-Clark, I. R., Radtke, H. L., & SARE Study Team. (2013). Sexual assault resistance education for university women: Study protocol for a randomized controlled trial (SARE trial). BMC women's health, 13, 1-13. https://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1472-6874-13-25


• Senn, C. Y., Eliasziw, M., Barata, P. C., Thurston, W. E., Newby-Clark, I. R., Radtke, H. L., & Hobden, K. L. (2015). Efficacy of a sexual assault resistance program for university women. The New England Journal of Medicine, 372(24), 2326–2335. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMsa1411131


• Senn, C. Y., Eliasziw, M., Hobden, K. L., Barata, P. C., Radtke, H. L., Thurston, W. E., Newby-Clark, I. R. (2021). Testing a model of how a sexual assault resistance education program for women reduces sexual assaults. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 45(1), 20-36, https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684320962561


• Senn, C. Y., Eliasziw, M., Hobden, K. L., Newby-Clark, I. R., Barata, P. C., Radtke, H. L., Thurston, Wilfreda E. (2017). Secondary and 2-year outcomes of a sexual assault resistance program for university women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 41(2), 147-162, https://doi.org/1010.1177/0361684317690119


• Senn, C. Y., Gee, S. S., & Thake, J. (2011). Emancipatory sexuality education and sexual assault resistance: Does the former enhance the latter? Psychology of Women Quarterly, 35(1), 72-91. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684310384101

Systematic reviews

• Anderson, L. A., & Whiston, S. C. (2005). Sexual assault education programs: A meta-analytic examination of their effectiveness. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 29(4), 374-388. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2005.00237.x


• Fellmeth G. L. T., Heernan, C., Nurse, J., Habibula, S., & Sethi, D. (2013). Educational and skills-based interventions for preventing relationship and dating violence in adolescents and young adults. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 6. CD004534. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD004534.pub3


• Hudspith, L. F., Wager, N., Willmott, D., & Gallagher, B. (2021). Forty years of rape myth acceptance interventions: A systematic review of what works in naturalistic institutional settings and how this can be applied to educational guidance for jurors. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 24(2), 981-1000. https://doi.org/10.1177/15248380211050575

Additional evidence on the intervention

This list contains other evidence that was not eligible for the Intervention Review based on our selection criteria but may provide further information regarding the intervention.

• Hobden, K. L., Thurston, W. E., McVey, G. L., & Senn, C. Y. (2021). An evaluation of strategies used to maximize intervention fidelity in a randomized controlled trial of a sexual assault resistance program for university women. Prevention Science: The Official Journal of the Society for Prevention Research, 22(7), 960–970. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-021-01239-2


• Jeffrey, N. K., Senn, C. Y., Hobden, K. L., Barata, P. C., McVey, G. L., Radtke, H. L., & Eliasziw, M. (2022). Evaluation of the transfer of training for a sexual assault resistance program enhanced with sexuality education. Sexuality Research and Social Policy, 19(4), 2007-2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13178-022-00749-0


• Orchowski, L. M., Edwards, K. M., Hollander, J. A., Banyard, V. L., Senn, C. Y., & Gidycz, C. A. (2020). Integrating sexual assault resistance, bystander, and men's social norms strategies to prevent sexual violence on college campuses: A call to action. Trauma, Violence & Abuse, 21(4), 811–827. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838018789153


• Senn, C. Y. (2011). An imperfect feminist journey: Reflections on the process to develop an effective sexual assault resistance programme for university women. Feminism and Psychology, 21(1), 121-137, https://doi.org/10.1177/0959353510386094


• Senn, C. Y., Eliasziw, M., Barata, P. C., Thurston, W. E., Newby-Clark, I. R., Radtke, H. L., Hobden, K. L., & SARE Study Team (2014). Sexual violence in the lives of first-year university women in Canada: No improvements in the 21st century. BMC Women's Health, 14, 135. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12905-014-0135-4


• Senn, C. Y., Hollander, J. A., & Gidycz, C. A. (2018). Chapter 11 - What works? Critical components of effective sexual violence interventions for women on college and university campuses. In L. M. Orchowski & C. A. Gidycz (Eds.), Sexual Assault Risk Reduction and Resistance (pp. 245-289). Academic Press.https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-805389-8.00010-4


• Senn, C. Y., Saunders, K., & Gee, S. (2008). Walking the tightrope: Providing sexual assault resistance education for university women without victim blame. In S. Arcand, D. Damant, S. Gravel, & E. Harper (Eds.), Violences faites aux femmes in the collection: Problemes sociaux et interventions sociales (pp. 353–372). Quebec City: Les Presses de Université du Québec.


• Vladutiu, C J., Martin, S. L. & Macy, R. J. (2011). College- or university-based sexual assault prevention programs: A review of program outcomes, characteristics, and recommendations. Trauma, Violence & Abuse, 12(2), 67-86, https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838010390708