Education programs for male university students to prevent sexual violence

About this review

This Intervention Review is primarily based on six systematic reviews and 32 primary studies, published across 39 documents.

The review draws on the best available impact evaluation evidence. The studies were selected against set selection criteria which is based on a rigorous and comprehensive search and screening process. This review includes impact evaluations of the intervention and therefore does not necessarily reflect all evidence on the intervention. Further materials on this intervention are listed under References and Further Reading.

See the Prevention Evidence and Gap Map to explore similar interventions. For details about the individual studies, see the Included Studies section. For further information about the methods informing this review, please see the Intervention Review Technical Report (forthcoming).

This Intervention Review focuses on educational sexual violence prevention interventions for male university and college students. The interventions captured in this review are primarily didactic in nature and may include additional components such as bystander intervention. Programs based primarily on bystander intervention set in tertiary education are the focus of forthcoming Intervention Reviews, which will be hyperlinked here once published.

Suggested citation: ANROWS. (2023). Education programs for male university students to prevent sexual violence. . Evidence Portal Intervention Review. ANROWS.

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Date Created: 30 November, 2023
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At a glance

Intervention

Interventions focus on educating male students about sexual violence, with an aim to build empathy for victims and survivors, raise awareness about the influence of gender socialisation and social norms, dispel rape myths, and challenge sexual violence-supportive attitudes

Key populations

Male university students who have not necessarily perpetrated sexual violence

Outcomes studied

Gender-based violence; behaviours; knowledge, beliefs and attitudes; lived experience; relationships; wellbeing and emotions

Impact of the intervention

Of the 32 primary studies, seven outcomes received an effectiveness rating on our Effectiveness Estimate Tool

Australian Evidence

None of the studies presented findings from Australia

Risk of bias

Of the studies with available quantitative data, we rated 2 as very low or low, 0 as moderate, and 15 as high or very high risk of bias on the Risk of Bias tool

Intervention description

What are the key characteristics of the intervention?

Didactic sexual violence educational interventions for male university students seek to build men's empathy for victims and survivors, raise awareness about the influence of gender socialisation and social norms, dispel rape myths and challenge sexual violence-supportive attitudes. The overarching aim is to prevent young men from potentially perpetrating sexual violence, particularly sexual assault.

The educational nature of these interventions means participants learn about key statistics on the prevalence of sexual violence and its legal definitions, consent and sexual communication, and rape myths. Other topics cover attitudes towards rape, sexually aggressive behaviours and dispelling myths and misperceptions of sexual violence. These interventions generally involve the presentation of educational materials (often shown in a video format), followed by activities like hypothetical scenarios or vignettes of sexual violence and facilitated small group discussions.

These interventions are generally underscored by three main approaches:

Theory of change

How is the intervention designed or theorised to work?

Many of the primary studies did not describe the theory of change behind the interventions (14 of 32 studies). These interventions hypothesised that teaching cohorts of male students about sexual violence will induce empathy for victims and survivors’ of sexual violence, will, in turn, alter rape-supportive attitudes and ultimately aid in the cessation of sexual violence on campus

For studies that described a theoretical basis, the interventions were primarily based on existing models such as:

Some interventions also relied on a combination of other underlying behavioural theories such as:


Impact section coming soon

Effectiveness rating Outcome Description

Key Populations

Has the impact of this intervention been tested with certain key populations?

This Intervention Review assessed the impact of sexual violence prevention education for male students in tertiary education settings. These interventions were delivered to cohorts of male-only university or college students. Participants were mostly undergraduate-level students based in United States fraternities who were aged 18 to 25 years. The interventions were not designed for any specific cultural or ethnic groups, people with physical or mental disabilities, or health conditions. Many of the interventions were delivered to students who were young, white and single, meaning the impact of the interventions have not been tested with certain key populations.

The table below gives an overview of whether or not the intervention was examined with some key populations. The inclusion of these populations was guided by the National Plan to End Violence against Women and Children 2022-2032 and the Australian National Research Agenda to End Violence against Women and Children: 2023-2028.

🔴 = no studies
🟡 = at least 1 study mentions that population, but effectiveness wasn't tested with that population
🟢 = at least 1 study tests effectiveness with the population

Population What do we know about this group? Degree of knowledge
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities

0 studies. The appropriateness of this intervention with this population has not yet been established. Therefore, we cannot confirm the applicability of this intervention to this population

Sexuality and gender diverse / LGBTIQA+

0 studies. The appropriateness of this intervention with this population has not yet been established. Therefore, we cannot confirm the applicability of this intervention to this population

Specific age groups (including older people, children and young people)

All studies examined the effectiveness of the intervention with young men aged 18 to 25 years.

Culturally and linguistically diverse (CALD) groups

0 studies. The appropriateness of this intervention with this population has not yet been established. Therefore, we cannot confirm the applicability of this intervention to this population

Migrants and refugees

0 studies. The appropriateness of this intervention with this population has not yet been established. Therefore, we cannot confirm the applicability of this intervention to this population

People with disability

0 studies. The appropriateness of this intervention with this population has not yet been established. Therefore, we cannot confirm the applicability of this intervention to this population

Key considerations

This section summarises factors that may contribute to study results, factors that may be considered to facilitate better outcomes, and the transferability of the intervention to an Australian context.

What do we know about the intervention in Australia?

What should Australian stakeholders consider?

The nature of the available evidence:

Implementation considerations:

Included studies

Characteristics of primary studies included in the Intervention Review
Study and location Design Intervention Sample Risk of bias rating
Barone et al. (2007) United States Qualitative study The Men’s Project, social norms-focused program with multimedia presentation and activities covering socialisation, rape myths, consent, empathy, privilege and oppression.

Duration and format: Ten 2-hour weekly group sessions for delivered face-to-face by a facilitator

Setting:Tertiary education

Cost:Not reported
N=19

Adult male university students, aged 18-23 years
Knowledge, beliefs and attitudes; behaviours
Berg et al. (1999) United States Randomised controlled trial

Comparison: Active intervention; audiotaped testimony of either female or male survivor; and control group participated in the 25-minute didactic component only

Qualitative data: No
Empathy-focused program, with a didactic presentation on facts, an audiotaped testimony of a female or male victim/survivor followed by a discussion

Duration and format: A single group session with a 25-minute presentation and 50-minute audiotape and discussion delivered face-to-face by two trained male presenters

Setting:Tertiary education

Cost:Not reported
N=54

Adult male university students, mean age 19.2 years
Gender-based violence; knowledge, beliefs and attitudes; wellbeing and emotions; behaviours
Berliant (2012) Canada Randomised controlled trial

Comparison: Passive intervention; video based on non-sexual assault content

Qualitative data: No
Sexual assault prevention video, with short clips depicting common rape myths

Duration and format: Video delivered face-to-face in a single group session, duration not reported

Setting:Tertiary education

Cost:Not reported
N=19

Adult male university students, 88.9% aged 18-23 years
Gender-based violence; knowledge, beliefs and attitudes; wellbeing and emotions
Boulter (1998) United States Randomised controlled trial

Comparison: Waitlist

Qualitative data: No
Socialisation-focused program, with a video followed by a discussion about rape myths, gender, norms and legal issues

Duration and format: A single 1-hour group session delivered face-to-face by a facilitator

Setting:Tertiary education

Cost:Not reported
N=175

Adult male university students and fraternity members, mean age 20.8 years
Knowledge, beliefs and attitudes
Caver (2012) United States Single group pre-post study

Comparison: N/A

Qualitative data: Yes
Outcry, empathy-focused program, with education and discussion

Duration and format: A single 1-hour group session delivered face-to-face by a trained male university staff member

Setting:Tertiary education

Cost:Not reported
N=97

Adult male university students, mean age 19 years
Knowledge, beliefs and attitudes
Choate (2003) United States Single group pre-post study

Comparison: N/A

Qualitative data: No
Men against violence model, peer-education training program with content on male socialisation, rape myths, awareness of the prevalence of sexual violence

Duration and format: A single 1-hour presentation delivered by a pair of trained male-female facilitators

Setting:Tertiary education

Cost:Not reported
N=149

Adult male university fraternity members, mean age 19.7 years, 95.3% white
Knowledge, beliefs and attitudes; lived experience
Darlington (2014) United States Randomised controlled trial

Comparison: Active intervention; SWAT plus bystander education; and waitlist control

Qualitative data: No
Sexual Wellness Advocacy Team (SWAT), social norms-focused program, with theatre presentations and exercises to educate about statistics, consent, victim blaming and survivor empathy, helping victims/survivors and resources

Duration and format: A single 45-minute face-to-face group session delivered by 5-7 peer educators with weekly 3-hour training for a year

Setting:Tertiary education

Cost:Not reported
N=197

Adult male university students and fraternity members, mean age 19.65 years, 76.2% white, 70.1% single, 47.8% had known a survivor, 29.3% had known a perpetrator
Gender-based violence; Relationships; behaviours; knowledge, beliefs and attitudes
Davis (1997) United States Randomised controlled trial

Comparison: Active intervention; traditional rape prevention program for men; and passive intervention for control group, video based on non-sexual assault content

Qualitative data: No
Socialisation-focused program, with education about consent and legal definitions several sitcom videos and discussion about sex-role socialisation

Duration and format: A single 90-minute group session delivered face-to-face by three trained facilitators

Setting:Tertiary education

Cost:Not reported
N=90

Adult male university students, mean age 19.63 years, 58.9% fraternity members
Knowledge, beliefs and attitudes; lived experience; behaviours
Davis & Liddell (2002) United States Randomised controlled trial

Comparison: Active intervention; traditional sexual assault prevention program; and no treatment control
v Qualitative data: No
Socialisation-focused program, with education about myths and facts, video, followed by a discussion to raise awareness

Duration and format: A single 90-minute group session delivered face-to-face by a facilitator

Setting:Tertiary education

Cost:Not reported
N=90

Adult male university students, mean age 19.63 years
Knowledge, beliefs and attitudes
De Gue et al. (2014) Systematic review

Type of analysis: Narrative synthesis 1985-2012
Sexual assault prevention interventions

N Included studies: 140

Included research design: Randomised controlled trials and quasi-experimental studies

Countries: Any country
Adolescents and adults, all genders Gender-based violence; Behaviours
Echols (1998) United States Quasi-experimental study

Comparison: No treatment

Qualitative data: : No
The Gentleman’s Agreement is, empathy-focused program, with a didactic session and group therapy-style activity

Duration and format: A single 2-hour group session delivered face-to-face by a team of 5 trained male graduate and undergraduate peer educators

Setting:Tertiary education

Cost:Not reported
N=361

Adult male university students, mean age 18.18 years
Knowledge, beliefs and attitudes
Fellmeth et al. (2013) Systematic review

Type of analysis:
Meta-analysis

Not stated-2012
Sexual assault and intimate partner violence prevention educational and skills-based interventions

N Included studies: 38

Included research designs: Randomised controlled trials

Countries: Any country
Adolescents and adults, all genders Gender-based violence; Health; knowledge, beliefs and attitudes
Foubert (2000) United States Cluster randomised controlled trial

Comparison: No treatment

Qualitative data: : No
How to help a sexual assault survivor: What men can do, empathy-focused program, with education about sexual violence definitions, a video describing a male-on-male rape, followed by a discussion about the effects of rape and ways to help victims/survivors

Duration and format:

Setting:Tertiary education

Cost:Not reported
N=217

Adult male university students and fraternity members, mean age 20.33 years
Knowledge, beliefs and attitudes; gender-based violence
Foubert et al. (2010) United States Qualitative study The Men’s Program, empathy-focused program, with a video describing a male-on-male rape, followed by a discussion about the effects of rape, ways to help victims/survivors, and additional modules focusing on consent and bystander intervention in alcohol-related situations

Duration and format: A single 1-hour group session delivered face-to-face by male undergraduate peer educators

Setting:Tertiary education

Cost:Not reported
N=184

Adult male university students, aged 19-21 years
Knowledge, beliefs and attitudes; behaviours
Foubert & Marriott (1997) United States Quasi-experimental study

Comparison: No treatment

Qualitative data: : No
How to help a sexual assault survivor: What men can do, empathy-focused program, with education about sexual violence definitions, a video describing a male-on-male rape, followed by a discussion about the effects of rape and ways to help victims/survivors

Duration and format: A single group session delivered face-to-face by male peer educators, duration not reported

Setting:Tertiary education

Cost:Not reported
N=109

Adult male university students and fraternity members, mean age 18.8 years
Knowledge, beliefs and attitudes
Foubert & McEwen (1998) United States Randomised controlled trial

Comparison: No treatment

Qualitative data: : No
How to help a sexual assault survivor: What men can do, empathy-focused program, with education about sexual violence definitions, a video describing a male-on-male rape, followed by a discussion about the effects of rape and ways to help victims/survivors

Duration and format: A single 1-hour group session delivered face-to-face by 4 peer educators

Setting:Tertiary education

Cost:Not reported
N=155

Adult male university students and fraternity members, mean age 19.9 years
Gender-based violence; knowledge, beliefs and attitudes
Foubert & Newberry (2006) United States Randomised controlled trial

Comparison: No treatment

Qualitative data: : No
Intervention 1: The Men’s Program, empathy-focused program, with a video describing both females and males as victims/survivors of sexual assault, followed by a discussion about the effects of rape, ways to help victims/survivors, with an additional module on consent in alcohol-related situations

Intervention 2: The Men’s Program, empathy-focused program, with a video describing a male-on-male rape, followed by a discussion about the effects of rape, ways to help victims/survivors,, empathy-focused program, with a video describing a male-on-male rape, followed by a discussion about the effects of rape, ways to help victims/survivors,with additional modules focusing on bystander intervention in alcohol-related situations

Duration and format: A single group session delivered face-to-face by a trained facilitator, duration not reported

Setting:Tertiary education

Cost:Not reported
N=261

Adult male university students and fraternity members, mean age not reported
Gender-based violence; wellbeing and emotions; knowledge, beliefs and attitudes
Foubert & Perry (2007) United States Qualitative study The Men’s Program, empathy-focused program, with a video describing a male-on-male rape, followed by a discussion about the effects of rape, ways to help victims/survivors, and additional modules focusing on consent and bystander intervention in alcohol-related situations

Duration and format: A single 1-hour group session delivered face-to-face by trained male peer educators

Setting:Tertiary education

Cost:Not reported
N=24

Adult male university students and members of varsity athletic teams or fraternities, mean age not reported
Knowledge, beliefs and attitudes
Gidycz et al. (2011) United States Cluster randomised controlled trial

Comparison: Waitlist

Qualitative data: : No
The Men’s Program, social norms-focused program with multimedia presentation and activities covering socialisation, rape myths, consent, empathy, privilege and oppression

Duration and format: A single 1.5-hour group session and a 1-hour booster session after 4 months, delivered face-to-face by 4 undergraduate students, 2 doctoral psychology students and 2 trained male facilitators

Setting:Tertiary education

Cost:Not reported
N=635

Adult male first-year university students, 98% aged 18-19 years, 91.8% white
Gender-based violence; behaviours; knowledge, beliefs and attitudes
Graham et al. (2021) Systematic review

Type of analysis: Narrative synthesis

Not stated-2017
Male-targeted sexual violence or intimate partner violence prevention and bystander interventions

N Included studies: 8

Included research design: Randomised controlled trials

Countries: Any country
Adolescents and adults, male only Gender-based violence
Hatcher (2009) United States Randomised controlled trial

Comparison: Waitlist

Qualitative data: : No
Empathy-focused video, with short clips discussing rape myths, testimonies of female victims/survivors and male perpetrators

Duration and format: A single 45-minute video delivered in a group session

Setting:Tertiary education

Cost:Not reported
N=45

Adult male university students, mean age 19.35 years, 77.5% white
Knowledge, beliefs and attitudes; wellbeing and emotions; relationships
Holz et al. (2018) United States Single group pre-post study

Comparison: N/A

Qualitative data: : No
Socialisation-focused program, with education on consent, definitions, video testimonies from victims/survivors and advocates

Duration and format: A single 40-minute face-to-face group session delivered by mixed gender undergraduate peer educator pairs

Setting:Tertiary education

Cost:Not reported
N=289

Adult male university students, mean age 18.5 years, 80% white
Gender-based violence; knowledge, beliefs and attitudes
Hudspith et al. (2021) Systematic review

Type of analysis: Narrative synthesis

Search period: 1980-2020
Sexual assault prevention educational interventions

N Included studies: 20

Included research design: Randomised controlled trials and quasi-experimental studies

Countries: Any country
General population, all genders Knowledge, beliefs and attitudes
Johansson-Love & Geer (2003) United States Randomised controlled trial

Comparison: Passive intervention, video and pamphlet based on non-sexual assault content

Qualitative data: : No
Empathy-focused video, with testimonies from victims/survivors and 2 pamphlets containing statistics and information about men’s positive behaviours and myths

Duration and format: A single 22-minute video and two pamphlets delivered individually by a facilitator

Setting: Tertiary education

Cost: Not reported
N=151

Adult male university students, mean age 20.06 years, 84.5% white
Knowledge, beliefs and attitudes
Liu (2010) United States Quasi-experimental study

Comparison: No treatment

Qualitative data: : No
Men Creating Attitudes for Rape-Free Environments (Men CARE), socialisation-focused program, with mentoring on men’s violence against women and positive roles men can play, and an activity to create a poster campaign

Duration and format: Two group workshops delivered face-to-face by male mentors including peers, administrators and faculty, duration not reported

Setting: Tertiary education

Cost: Not reported
N=803

Adult male university students, 63.7% fraternity members, 70.9% white , mean age not reported
Behaviours; knowledge, beliefs and attitudes
Lobo (2005) United States Randomised controlled trial

Comparison: Waitlist

Qualitative data: : No
Socialisation-focused program, with education about sexual assault, vignettes describing risky sexual situations and discussions about consent

Duration and format: A single 2-hour group session delivered face-to-face by a trained male graduate student

Setting: Tertiary education

Cost: Not reported
N=342

Adult male university students, 91.8% aged 18-20 years, 89.2% white
Gender-based violence; behaviours; knowledge, beliefs and attitudes
Northam (1997) United States Randomised controlled trial

Comparison: No treatment

Qualitative data: : No
Socialisation-focused presentation, with education about statistics, videos, followed by a discussion and information packet of material covered in program

Duration and format: A single 1-hour group session delivered face-to-face by a pair of mixed-gender peer educators

Setting: Tertiary education

Cost: Not reported
N=180

Adult male university students, mean age 20 years
Relationships; knowledge, beliefs and attitudes; gender-based violence
O'Donohue et al. (2003) United States Randomised controlled trial

Comparison: Active intervention; a video-based prevention program, The Date Rape Backlash

Qualitative data: : No
Empathy-based prevention video, with written scripts focused on dispelling rape myths, testimonials from victims/survivors and male perpetrators

Duration and format: A single 45-minute group session delivered in a group face-to-face

Setting: Tertiary education

Cost: Not reported
N=102

Adult male university students, mean age 19.7 years, 77.5% white
Knowledge, beliefs and attitudes; gender-based violence; wellbeing and emotions; behaviours
Phipps (2003) United States Randomised controlled trial

Comparison: No treatment

Qualitative data: : No
The Men’s Program, empathy-focused program, with education about definitions, a video describing a male-on-male-rape, followed by a discussion about consent, the effects of rape and ways to help victims/survivors

Duration and format: A single 1-hour group session delivered face-to-face by trained male peer facilitators

Setting: Tertiary education

Cost: Not reported
N=163

Adult male university students, mean age 20.33 years, 94% white , 47% dating, 23% single
Knowledge, beliefs and attitudes; wellbeing and emotions; relationships; gender-based violence
Raymond (2011) United States Randomised controlled trial
Comparison: Passive treatment; a program promoting alternative forms of transportation

Qualitative data: : No
Socialisation-focused program, with cognitive dissonance manipulation, and an activity to create public service announcements dispelling rape myths

Duration and format: A single group session delivered face-to-face by the researcher, duration not reported

Setting:Tertiary education

Cost:Not reported
N=61

Adult male university students, mean age 19.7 years
Knowledge, beliefs and attitudes
Ruvalcaba et al. (2022) United States Systematic review

Type of analysis: Meta-analysis

Search period: Not stated-2018
Male-targeted sexual assault prevention interventions

N Included studies: 10

Included research design: Randomised controlled trials and quasi-experimental studies

Countries: United States only
University or college students, male only (specifically male fraternity or athletic teams) Knowledge, beliefs and attitudes; gender-based violence
Schewe & O’Donohue (1996) United States Randomised controlled trial

Comparison: No treatment

Qualitative data: : No
Rape-supportive cognitions program, with a video, exercises and hypothetical scenarios, followed by an empathy-based behavioural task

Duration and format: A single 50-minute video shown face-to-face to a groups by a male facilitator

Setting: Tertiary education

Cost: Not reported
N=225

Adult male university students, mean age 19.7 years
Knowledge, beliefs and attitudes; gender-based violence; wellbeing and emotions
Stephens (2008); Stephens & George (2009) United States Randomised controlled trial

Comparison: Passive intervention; 50-minute videos based on non-sexual assault content

Qualitative data: : No
How to help a sexual assault survivor: What men can do, empathy-focused program, with education about sexual violence definitions, a video describing a male-on-male rape, followed by a discussion about the effects of rape and ways to help victims/survivors

Duration and format: A single group session with 50-minute video presentation delivered face-to-face by a male facilitator

Setting: Tertiary education

Cost: Not reported
N=146

Adult male university students studying psychology , mean age 19.3 years, 100% white
Knowledge, beliefs and attitudes; gender-based violence; wellbeing and emotions
Stephens & George (2004) United States Randomised controlled trial

Comparison: Passive intervention; 30-minute video based on non-sexual assault content

Qualitative data: : No
Rethinking Rape, socialisation-focused video, with education about sexual violence, rape myths, and testimonials from victims/survivors

Duration and format: A single 28-minute video delivered face-to-face in groups by a male facilitator

Setting: Tertiary education

Cost: Not reported
N=45

Adult male university students, aged 18-25 years, 71.1% white
Knowledge, beliefs and attitudes
Stewart (2014) United States Single group pre-post study

Comparison: N/A

Qualitative data: : No
The Men’s Program, socialisation-focused program, with education about the effects of sexual assault

Duration and format: Eleven 2-hour weekly group sessions delivered face-to-face by two graduate students

Setting: Tertiary education

Cost: Not reported
N=33

Adult male university students, mean age 20.33 years, n=1 FTM trans individual, 86% same-sex attracted, 28% fraternity members
Knowledge, beliefs and attitudes; behaviours
Tarrant (1999) United States Quasi-experimental study

Comparison: An active intervention; rape prevention education program; and a no treatment control

Qualitative data: : No
Feminist-based, socialisation-focused program for men, involving interactive exercises to facilitate awareness of gender and masculinity, sexual scripts and rape, and non-consensual sexual activity

Duration and format: A single 60-minute group session delivered face-to-face by a male presenter with a sociology degree and experience presenting rape education

Setting: Tertiary education

Cost: Not reported
N=442

Adult male university students, mean age 19.71 years, 92.2% White, 80.3% fraternity members, 19.7% all-male residence hall residents
Gender-based violence; knowledge, beliefs and attitudes; behaviours
Wong et al. (2020) United States Randomised controlled trial

Comparison: Two active interventions, a social norms control condition; and a control condition focusing on a sense of belongingness

Qualitative data: : No
Self-persuasion program, with two short social norms-focused videos, and activities addressing values, consent and rape myths

Duration and format: A single 45-minute online self-directed program

Setting: Tertiary education

Cost: Not reported
N=242

Adult male university students, mean age 20.26 years, 55.2% single
Gender-based violence; behaviours; relationships
Wright et al. (2017; 2020) Systematic review

Type of analysis: Meta-analysis

Search period: 1970-2014
Male-targeted sexual assault prevention interventions

N Included studies: 38

Included research design: : Randomised controlled trials and quasi-experimental studies

Countries: High-income countries only
University or college students, male only Gender-based violence

References and further reading

Included Studies


Primary studies

Systematic reviews

Additional evidence on the intervention

This list contains other evidence that was not eligible for the Intervention Review based on our selection criteria but may provide further information regarding the intervention.