At a glance

Intervention Interventions focus on educating male students about sexual violence, with an aim to build empathy for victims and survivors, raise awareness about the influence of gender socialisation and social norms, dispel rape myths, and challenge sexual violence-supportive attitudes

Key populations Male university students who have not necessarily perpetrated sexual violence

Outcomes studied Gender-based violence; behaviours; knowledge, beliefs and attitudes; lived experience; relationships; wellbeing and emotions

Impact of the intervention Of the 32 primary studies, seven outcomes received an effectiveness rating on our Effectiveness Estimate Tool

Australian Evidence None of the studies presented findings from Australia

Risk of bias Of the studies with available quantitative data, we rated 2 as very low or low, 0 as moderate, and 15 as high or very high risk of bias on the Risk of Bias tool

Intervention description

What are the key characteristics of the intervention?

Didactic sexual violence educational interventions for male university students seek to build men's empathy for victims and survivors, raise awareness about the influence of gender socialisation and social norms, dispel rape myths and challenge sexual violence-supportive attitudes. The overarching aim is to prevent young men from potentially perpetrating sexual violence, particularly sexual assault.

The educational nature of these interventions means participants learn about key statistics on the prevalence of sexual violence and its legal definitions, consent and sexual communication, and rape myths. Other topics cover attitudes towards rape, sexually aggressive behaviours and dispelling myths and misperceptions of sexual violence. These interventions generally involve the presentation of educational materials (often shown in a video format), followed by activities like hypothetical scenarios or vignettes of sexual violence and facilitated small group discussions.

These interventions are generally underscored by three main approaches:

• Empathy-based approaches seek to elicit empathy towards victims and survivors of sexual violence. These interventions can involve listening to or watching testimonials of women who have experienced sexual violence followed by discussions and empathy-based behavioural tasks centred on imagining the effects of sexual violence on the victim and survivor and how they would feel, and in turn the feelings of the participants themselves. While the content and characteristics of the intervention are primarily heteronormative in focus, some interventions also feature material about a male-on-male sexual violence incident. The aim of this portrayal of sexual violence is to elicit empathy by drawing parallels to common experiences of female victim-survivors.
• Gender socialisation approaches seek to improve understandings of masculine and feminine socialisation. These interventions can involve discussing traditional conceptions of masculinity and femininity, sexual aggression and positive roles men can play in ending violence against women.
• Social norms approaches seek to challenge dominant views relating to men, women and sex. These interventions can involve discussing gender role scripts and power relations that promote a rape-supportive environment and the consequences of sexual violence.



What does the intervention involve?

Where is the intervention set? Tertiary education settings, including universities and colleges

How is the intervention delivered? Primarily delivered by male peer educators or trained facilitators. It is delivered face-to-face in groups, often with a video presentation shown in person. One intervention was a self-directed online format

How frequently is the intervention delivered? These interventions are brief and often delivered in single sessions (n=29, 90%), ranging from 22 minutes to 2 hours in length

What resources and costs are involved? None of the included studies commented on the costs

Theory of change

How is the intervention designed or theorised to work?

Many of the primary studies did not describe the theory of change behind the interventions (14 of 32 studies). These interventions hypothesised that teaching cohorts of male students about sexual violence will induce empathy for victims and survivors’ of sexual violence, will, in turn, alter rape-supportive attitudes and ultimately aid in the cessation of sexual violence on campus

For studies that described a theoretical basis, the interventions were primarily based on existing models such as:

• the Elaboration Likelihood Model which suggests that participants have an increased likelihood of attitude and behaviour change when they are motivated and can thoughtfully evaluate information that is presented as personally relevant (Foubert & McEwan, 1998; Foubert & Perry, 2007). These conditions lead to central route processing, a type of thinking whereby listeners actively process the program content being presented (Foubert & McEwan, 1998; Foubert & Perry, 2007). Specifically, The Men’s Program (see the Included Studies table) is based upon the Elaboration Likelihood Model.
• Belief Systems Theory which suggests that interventions can produce attitudinal change by approaching participants as “potential helpers” rather than “potential perpetrators” of sexual violence, thereby avoiding defensiveness and encouraging cooperation (Hudspith et al., 2021).
• Cognitive Dissonance Theory, which suggests that people experience discomfort when they hold conflicting beliefs, or their beliefs contradict their behaviour and, to resolve this discomfort, they are likely change their beliefs or behaviour. For example, participants who hold rape supportive beliefs may change these beliefs when tasked with an activity requiring them to explain why such beliefs are problematic (Raymond, 2011).

Some interventions also relied on a combination of other underlying behavioural theories such as:

• Social learning theory which suggests that people can learn by observing and imitating others.
• Protection-motivation theory which suggests that fear may facilitate attitude change as people are motivated to react in self-protective ways.
• Theory of planned behaviour which suggests that behavioural intent is shaped by a person’s attitude towards the behaviour, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control.

Impact section coming soon

Effectiveness rating	Outcome	Description

Key Populations

Has the impact of this intervention been tested with certain key populations?

This Intervention Review assessed the impact of sexual violence prevention education for male students in tertiary education settings. These interventions were delivered to cohorts of male-only university or college students. Participants were mostly undergraduate-level students based in United States fraternities who were aged 18 to 25 years. The interventions were not designed for any specific cultural or ethnic groups, people with physical or mental disabilities, or health conditions. Many of the interventions were delivered to students who were young, white and single, meaning the impact of the interventions have not been tested with certain key populations.

The table below gives an overview of whether or not the intervention was examined with some key populations. The inclusion of these populations was guided by the National Plan to End Violence against Women and Children 2022-2032 and the Australian National Research Agenda to End Violence against Women and Children: 2023-2028.

🔴 = no studies
🟡 = at least 1 study mentions that population, but effectiveness wasn't tested with that population
🟢 = at least 1 study tests effectiveness with the population

Population	What do we know about this group?	Degree of knowledge
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities	0 studies. The appropriateness of this intervention with this population has not yet been established. Therefore, we cannot confirm the applicability of this intervention to this population
Sexuality and gender diverse / LGBTIQA+	0 studies. The appropriateness of this intervention with this population has not yet been established. Therefore, we cannot confirm the applicability of this intervention to this population
Specific age groups (including older people, children and young people)	All studies examined the effectiveness of the intervention with young men aged 18 to 25 years.
Culturally and linguistically diverse (CALD) groups	0 studies. The appropriateness of this intervention with this population has not yet been established. Therefore, we cannot confirm the applicability of this intervention to this population
Migrants and refugees	0 studies. The appropriateness of this intervention with this population has not yet been established. Therefore, we cannot confirm the applicability of this intervention to this population
People with disability	0 studies. The appropriateness of this intervention with this population has not yet been established. Therefore, we cannot confirm the applicability of this intervention to this population

Key considerations

This section summarises factors that may contribute to study results, factors that may be considered to facilitate better outcomes, and the transferability of the intervention to an Australian context.

What do we know about the intervention in Australia?

• Absence of Australian research: None of the studies were conducted in Australia. All studies, except for one Canadian study, were based in the United States.

• College culture in the United States: In one-third of the studies (n = 11), the participants were fraternity members, which may not translate to the Australian context. Fraternities and “Greek” culture are major elements of a male student’s experience at United States colleges and are generally hyper-masculine settings. While Australia and the United States share similar university cultures in relation to high levels of reports of sexual violence, particularly in residential college settings, and widespread discontent with institutional responses, further research is required to determine how transferable or acceptable these interventions are for Australian tertiary education settings.

What should Australian stakeholders consider?

The nature of the available evidence:

• Older body of evidence: Nearly half of the included studies were conducted between the late 1990s and early 2000s (n=15). It is therefore possible the curriculum may no longer be considered current. Implementors could consider revisions based on recent empirical research, theoretical frameworks and best practice standards.
• Outcomes measured: According to the intervention’s theory of change, a complete cessation of sexual violence is the desired outcome from these interventions, however, many of the quantitative impact evaluations did not measure gender-based violence or behaviour changes. Most studies measured the attitude changes with short follow-up periods after the intervention was implemented, meaning it remains unclear whether the attitude changes go on to render behaviour changes in the participants. Future research should seek to measure the intention and actual perpetration of sexual violence.
• Lack of research on diverse populations: Many of the included studies focused on young white men, often in college fraternities. There are gaps in knowledge regarding the effect of the intervention on groups such as mature-aged and/or postgraduate, racially and ethnically diverse, and disabled students. Due to the inherent nature of the intervention being designed for tertiary education settings, it is unclear whether the intervention could be transferred to other settings (for example, high schools or workplaces).

Implementation considerations:

• Intervention delivery: Interventions were delivered by peer educators who received training from professional facilitators or professionally trained facilitators with experience presenting the material. Peer educators may be considered more relatable to their fellow students, while professional facilitators may be regarded with more credibility.
• Intervention intensity: Generally, lessons were delivered in single sessions, meaning this intervention is not time intensive. Implementors should consider the dosage of the intervention to balance time commitment with positive outcomes.
• Intervention duration: Given the brevity of most of the interventions (between 22 minutes and 2 hours), future studies may test the impact of implementing multiple sessions to determine the effectiveness of longer exposure to sexual violence prevention education for college and university male student populations.
• Resourcing: This intervention involves the recruitment and training of peer educators or facilitators, as well as the development or provision of audiovisual or printed materials. It was not possible to determine the cost effectiveness, given none of the studies reported on the costs associated with implementation.

Included studies

Characteristics of primary studies included in the Intervention Review

Study and location	Design	Intervention	Sample	Risk of bias rating
Barone et al. (2007) United States	Qualitative study	The Men’s Project, social norms-focused program with multimedia presentation and activities covering socialisation, rape myths, consent, empathy, privilege and oppression. Duration and format: Ten 2-hour weekly group sessions for delivered face-to-face by a facilitator Setting:Tertiary education Cost:Not reported	N=19 Adult male university students, aged 18-23 years	Knowledge, beliefs and attitudes; behaviours
Berg et al. (1999) United States	Randomised controlled trial Comparison: Active intervention; audiotaped testimony of either female or male survivor; and control group participated in the 25-minute didactic component only Qualitative data: No	Empathy-focused program, with a didactic presentation on facts, an audiotaped testimony of a female or male victim/survivor followed by a discussion Duration and format: A single group session with a 25-minute presentation and 50-minute audiotape and discussion delivered face-to-face by two trained male presenters Setting:Tertiary education Cost:Not reported	N=54 Adult male university students, mean age 19.2 years	Gender-based violence; knowledge, beliefs and attitudes; wellbeing and emotions; behaviours
Berliant (2012) Canada	Randomised controlled trial Comparison: Passive intervention; video based on non-sexual assault content Qualitative data: No	Sexual assault prevention video, with short clips depicting common rape myths Duration and format: Video delivered face-to-face in a single group session, duration not reported Setting:Tertiary education Cost:Not reported	N=19 Adult male university students, 88.9% aged 18-23 years	Gender-based violence; knowledge, beliefs and attitudes; wellbeing and emotions
Boulter (1998) United States	Randomised controlled trial Comparison: Waitlist Qualitative data: No	Socialisation-focused program, with a video followed by a discussion about rape myths, gender, norms and legal issues Duration and format: A single 1-hour group session delivered face-to-face by a facilitator Setting:Tertiary education Cost:Not reported	N=175 Adult male university students and fraternity members, mean age 20.8 years	Knowledge, beliefs and attitudes
Caver (2012) United States	Single group pre-post study Comparison: N/A Qualitative data: Yes	Outcry, empathy-focused program, with education and discussion Duration and format: A single 1-hour group session delivered face-to-face by a trained male university staff member Setting:Tertiary education Cost:Not reported	N=97 Adult male university students, mean age 19 years	Knowledge, beliefs and attitudes
Choate (2003) United States	Single group pre-post study Comparison: N/A Qualitative data: No	Men against violence model, peer-education training program with content on male socialisation, rape myths, awareness of the prevalence of sexual violence Duration and format: A single 1-hour presentation delivered by a pair of trained male-female facilitators Setting:Tertiary education Cost:Not reported	N=149 Adult male university fraternity members, mean age 19.7 years, 95.3% white	Knowledge, beliefs and attitudes; lived experience
Darlington (2014) United States	Randomised controlled trial Comparison: Active intervention; SWAT plus bystander education; and waitlist control Qualitative data: No	Sexual Wellness Advocacy Team (SWAT), social norms-focused program, with theatre presentations and exercises to educate about statistics, consent, victim blaming and survivor empathy, helping victims/survivors and resources Duration and format: A single 45-minute face-to-face group session delivered by 5-7 peer educators with weekly 3-hour training for a year Setting:Tertiary education Cost:Not reported	N=197 Adult male university students and fraternity members, mean age 19.65 years, 76.2% white, 70.1% single, 47.8% had known a survivor, 29.3% had known a perpetrator	Gender-based violence; Relationships; behaviours; knowledge, beliefs and attitudes
Davis (1997) United States	Randomised controlled trial Comparison: Active intervention; traditional rape prevention program for men; and passive intervention for control group, video based on non-sexual assault content Qualitative data: No	Socialisation-focused program, with education about consent and legal definitions several sitcom videos and discussion about sex-role socialisation Duration and format: A single 90-minute group session delivered face-to-face by three trained facilitators Setting:Tertiary education Cost:Not reported	N=90 Adult male university students, mean age 19.63 years, 58.9% fraternity members	Knowledge, beliefs and attitudes; lived experience; behaviours
Davis & Liddell (2002) United States	Randomised controlled trial Comparison: Active intervention; traditional sexual assault prevention program; and no treatment control v Qualitative data: No	Socialisation-focused program, with education about myths and facts, video, followed by a discussion to raise awareness Duration and format: A single 90-minute group session delivered face-to-face by a facilitator Setting:Tertiary education Cost:Not reported	N=90 Adult male university students, mean age 19.63 years	Knowledge, beliefs and attitudes
De Gue et al. (2014)	Systematic review Type of analysis: Narrative synthesis 1985-2012	Sexual assault prevention interventions N Included studies: 140 Included research design: Randomised controlled trials and quasi-experimental studies Countries: Any country	Adolescents and adults, all genders	Gender-based violence; Behaviours
Echols (1998) United States	Quasi-experimental study Comparison: No treatment Qualitative data: : No	The Gentleman’s Agreement is, empathy-focused program, with a didactic session and group therapy-style activity Duration and format: A single 2-hour group session delivered face-to-face by a team of 5 trained male graduate and undergraduate peer educators Setting:Tertiary education Cost:Not reported	N=361 Adult male university students, mean age 18.18 years	Knowledge, beliefs and attitudes
Fellmeth et al. (2013)	Systematic review Type of analysis: Meta-analysis Not stated-2012	Sexual assault and intimate partner violence prevention educational and skills-based interventions N Included studies: 38 Included research designs: Randomised controlled trials Countries: Any country	Adolescents and adults, all genders	Gender-based violence; Health; knowledge, beliefs and attitudes
Foubert (2000) United States	Cluster randomised controlled trial Comparison: No treatment Qualitative data: : No	How to help a sexual assault survivor: What men can do, empathy-focused program, with education about sexual violence definitions, a video describing a male-on-male rape, followed by a discussion about the effects of rape and ways to help victims/survivors Duration and format: Setting:Tertiary education Cost:Not reported	N=217 Adult male university students and fraternity members, mean age 20.33 years	Knowledge, beliefs and attitudes; gender-based violence
Foubert et al. (2010) United States	Qualitative study	The Men’s Program, empathy-focused program, with a video describing a male-on-male rape, followed by a discussion about the effects of rape, ways to help victims/survivors, and additional modules focusing on consent and bystander intervention in alcohol-related situations Duration and format: A single 1-hour group session delivered face-to-face by male undergraduate peer educators Setting:Tertiary education Cost:Not reported	N=184 Adult male university students, aged 19-21 years	Knowledge, beliefs and attitudes; behaviours
Foubert & Marriott (1997) United States	Quasi-experimental study Comparison: No treatment Qualitative data: : No	How to help a sexual assault survivor: What men can do, empathy-focused program, with education about sexual violence definitions, a video describing a male-on-male rape, followed by a discussion about the effects of rape and ways to help victims/survivors Duration and format: A single group session delivered face-to-face by male peer educators, duration not reported Setting:Tertiary education Cost:Not reported	N=109 Adult male university students and fraternity members, mean age 18.8 years	Knowledge, beliefs and attitudes
Foubert & McEwen (1998) United States	Randomised controlled trial Comparison: No treatment Qualitative data: : No	How to help a sexual assault survivor: What men can do, empathy-focused program, with education about sexual violence definitions, a video describing a male-on-male rape, followed by a discussion about the effects of rape and ways to help victims/survivors Duration and format: A single 1-hour group session delivered face-to-face by 4 peer educators Setting:Tertiary education Cost:Not reported	N=155 Adult male university students and fraternity members, mean age 19.9 years	Gender-based violence; knowledge, beliefs and attitudes
Foubert & Newberry (2006) United States	Randomised controlled trial Comparison: No treatment Qualitative data: : No	Intervention 1: The Men’s Program, empathy-focused program, with a video describing both females and males as victims/survivors of sexual assault, followed by a discussion about the effects of rape, ways to help victims/survivors, with an additional module on consent in alcohol-related situations Intervention 2: The Men’s Program, empathy-focused program, with a video describing a male-on-male rape, followed by a discussion about the effects of rape, ways to help victims/survivors,, empathy-focused program, with a video describing a male-on-male rape, followed by a discussion about the effects of rape, ways to help victims/survivors,with additional modules focusing on bystander intervention in alcohol-related situations Duration and format: A single group session delivered face-to-face by a trained facilitator, duration not reported Setting:Tertiary education Cost:Not reported	N=261 Adult male university students and fraternity members, mean age not reported	Gender-based violence; wellbeing and emotions; knowledge, beliefs and attitudes
Foubert & Perry (2007) United States	Qualitative study	The Men’s Program, empathy-focused program, with a video describing a male-on-male rape, followed by a discussion about the effects of rape, ways to help victims/survivors, and additional modules focusing on consent and bystander intervention in alcohol-related situations Duration and format: A single 1-hour group session delivered face-to-face by trained male peer educators Setting:Tertiary education Cost:Not reported	N=24 Adult male university students and members of varsity athletic teams or fraternities, mean age not reported	Knowledge, beliefs and attitudes
Gidycz et al. (2011) United States	Cluster randomised controlled trial Comparison: Waitlist Qualitative data: : No	The Men’s Program, social norms-focused program with multimedia presentation and activities covering socialisation, rape myths, consent, empathy, privilege and oppression Duration and format: A single 1.5-hour group session and a 1-hour booster session after 4 months, delivered face-to-face by 4 undergraduate students, 2 doctoral psychology students and 2 trained male facilitators Setting:Tertiary education Cost:Not reported	N=635 Adult male first-year university students, 98% aged 18-19 years, 91.8% white	Gender-based violence; behaviours; knowledge, beliefs and attitudes
Graham et al. (2021)	Systematic review Type of analysis: Narrative synthesis Not stated-2017	Male-targeted sexual violence or intimate partner violence prevention and bystander interventions N Included studies: 8 Included research design: Randomised controlled trials Countries: Any country	Adolescents and adults, male only	Gender-based violence
Hatcher (2009) United States	Randomised controlled trial Comparison: Waitlist Qualitative data: : No	Empathy-focused video, with short clips discussing rape myths, testimonies of female victims/survivors and male perpetrators Duration and format: A single 45-minute video delivered in a group session Setting:Tertiary education Cost:Not reported	N=45 Adult male university students, mean age 19.35 years, 77.5% white	Knowledge, beliefs and attitudes; wellbeing and emotions; relationships
Holz et al. (2018) United States	Single group pre-post study Comparison: N/A Qualitative data: : No	Socialisation-focused program, with education on consent, definitions, video testimonies from victims/survivors and advocates Duration and format: A single 40-minute face-to-face group session delivered by mixed gender undergraduate peer educator pairs Setting:Tertiary education Cost:Not reported	N=289 Adult male university students, mean age 18.5 years, 80% white	Gender-based violence; knowledge, beliefs and attitudes
Hudspith et al. (2021)	Systematic review Type of analysis: Narrative synthesis Search period: 1980-2020	Sexual assault prevention educational interventions N Included studies: 20 Included research design: Randomised controlled trials and quasi-experimental studies Countries: Any country	General population, all genders	Knowledge, beliefs and attitudes
Johansson-Love & Geer (2003) United States	Randomised controlled trial Comparison: Passive intervention, video and pamphlet based on non-sexual assault content Qualitative data: : No	Empathy-focused video, with testimonies from victims/survivors and 2 pamphlets containing statistics and information about men’s positive behaviours and myths Duration and format: A single 22-minute video and two pamphlets delivered individually by a facilitator Setting: Tertiary education Cost: Not reported	N=151 Adult male university students, mean age 20.06 years, 84.5% white	Knowledge, beliefs and attitudes
Liu (2010) United States	Quasi-experimental study Comparison: No treatment Qualitative data: : No	Men Creating Attitudes for Rape-Free Environments (Men CARE), socialisation-focused program, with mentoring on men’s violence against women and positive roles men can play, and an activity to create a poster campaign Duration and format: Two group workshops delivered face-to-face by male mentors including peers, administrators and faculty, duration not reported Setting: Tertiary education Cost: Not reported	N=803 Adult male university students, 63.7% fraternity members, 70.9% white , mean age not reported	Behaviours; knowledge, beliefs and attitudes
Lobo (2005) United States	Randomised controlled trial Comparison: Waitlist Qualitative data: : No	Socialisation-focused program, with education about sexual assault, vignettes describing risky sexual situations and discussions about consent Duration and format: A single 2-hour group session delivered face-to-face by a trained male graduate student Setting: Tertiary education Cost: Not reported	N=342 Adult male university students, 91.8% aged 18-20 years, 89.2% white	Gender-based violence; behaviours; knowledge, beliefs and attitudes
Northam (1997) United States	Randomised controlled trial Comparison: No treatment Qualitative data: : No	Socialisation-focused presentation, with education about statistics, videos, followed by a discussion and information packet of material covered in program Duration and format: A single 1-hour group session delivered face-to-face by a pair of mixed-gender peer educators Setting: Tertiary education Cost: Not reported	N=180 Adult male university students, mean age 20 years	Relationships; knowledge, beliefs and attitudes; gender-based violence
O'Donohue et al. (2003) United States	Randomised controlled trial Comparison: Active intervention; a video-based prevention program, The Date Rape Backlash Qualitative data: : No	Empathy-based prevention video, with written scripts focused on dispelling rape myths, testimonials from victims/survivors and male perpetrators Duration and format: A single 45-minute group session delivered in a group face-to-face Setting: Tertiary education Cost: Not reported	N=102 Adult male university students, mean age 19.7 years, 77.5% white	Knowledge, beliefs and attitudes; gender-based violence; wellbeing and emotions; behaviours
Phipps (2003) United States	Randomised controlled trial Comparison: No treatment Qualitative data: : No	The Men’s Program, empathy-focused program, with education about definitions, a video describing a male-on-male-rape, followed by a discussion about consent, the effects of rape and ways to help victims/survivors Duration and format: A single 1-hour group session delivered face-to-face by trained male peer facilitators Setting: Tertiary education Cost: Not reported	N=163 Adult male university students, mean age 20.33 years, 94% white , 47% dating, 23% single	Knowledge, beliefs and attitudes; wellbeing and emotions; relationships; gender-based violence
Raymond (2011) United States	Randomised controlled trial Comparison: Passive treatment; a program promoting alternative forms of transportation Qualitative data: : No	Socialisation-focused program, with cognitive dissonance manipulation, and an activity to create public service announcements dispelling rape myths Duration and format: A single group session delivered face-to-face by the researcher, duration not reported Setting:Tertiary education Cost:Not reported	N=61 Adult male university students, mean age 19.7 years	Knowledge, beliefs and attitudes
Ruvalcaba et al. (2022) United States	Systematic review Type of analysis: Meta-analysis Search period: Not stated-2018	Male-targeted sexual assault prevention interventions N Included studies: 10 Included research design: Randomised controlled trials and quasi-experimental studies Countries: United States only	University or college students, male only (specifically male fraternity or athletic teams)	Knowledge, beliefs and attitudes; gender-based violence
Schewe & O’Donohue (1996) United States	Randomised controlled trial Comparison: No treatment Qualitative data: : No	Rape-supportive cognitions program, with a video, exercises and hypothetical scenarios, followed by an empathy-based behavioural task Duration and format: A single 50-minute video shown face-to-face to a groups by a male facilitator Setting: Tertiary education Cost: Not reported	N=225 Adult male university students, mean age 19.7 years	Knowledge, beliefs and attitudes; gender-based violence; wellbeing and emotions
Stephens (2008); Stephens & George (2009) United States	Randomised controlled trial Comparison: Passive intervention; 50-minute videos based on non-sexual assault content Qualitative data: : No	How to help a sexual assault survivor: What men can do, empathy-focused program, with education about sexual violence definitions, a video describing a male-on-male rape, followed by a discussion about the effects of rape and ways to help victims/survivors Duration and format: A single group session with 50-minute video presentation delivered face-to-face by a male facilitator Setting: Tertiary education Cost: Not reported	N=146 Adult male university students studying psychology , mean age 19.3 years, 100% white	Knowledge, beliefs and attitudes; gender-based violence; wellbeing and emotions
Stephens & George (2004) United States	Randomised controlled trial Comparison: Passive intervention; 30-minute video based on non-sexual assault content Qualitative data: : No	Rethinking Rape, socialisation-focused video, with education about sexual violence, rape myths, and testimonials from victims/survivors Duration and format: A single 28-minute video delivered face-to-face in groups by a male facilitator Setting: Tertiary education Cost: Not reported	N=45 Adult male university students, aged 18-25 years, 71.1% white	Knowledge, beliefs and attitudes
Stewart (2014) United States	Single group pre-post study Comparison: N/A Qualitative data: : No	The Men’s Program, socialisation-focused program, with education about the effects of sexual assault Duration and format: Eleven 2-hour weekly group sessions delivered face-to-face by two graduate students Setting: Tertiary education Cost: Not reported	N=33 Adult male university students, mean age 20.33 years, n=1 FTM trans individual, 86% same-sex attracted, 28% fraternity members	Knowledge, beliefs and attitudes; behaviours
Tarrant (1999) United States	Quasi-experimental study Comparison: An active intervention; rape prevention education program; and a no treatment control Qualitative data: : No	Feminist-based, socialisation-focused program for men, involving interactive exercises to facilitate awareness of gender and masculinity, sexual scripts and rape, and non-consensual sexual activity Duration and format: A single 60-minute group session delivered face-to-face by a male presenter with a sociology degree and experience presenting rape education Setting: Tertiary education Cost: Not reported	N=442 Adult male university students, mean age 19.71 years, 92.2% White, 80.3% fraternity members, 19.7% all-male residence hall residents	Gender-based violence; knowledge, beliefs and attitudes; behaviours
Wong et al. (2020) United States	Randomised controlled trial Comparison: Two active interventions, a social norms control condition; and a control condition focusing on a sense of belongingness Qualitative data: : No	Self-persuasion program, with two short social norms-focused videos, and activities addressing values, consent and rape myths Duration and format: A single 45-minute online self-directed program Setting: Tertiary education Cost: Not reported	N=242 Adult male university students, mean age 20.26 years, 55.2% single	Gender-based violence; behaviours; relationships
Wright et al. (2017; 2020)	Systematic review Type of analysis: Meta-analysis Search period: 1970-2014	Male-targeted sexual assault prevention interventions N Included studies: 38 Included research design: : Randomised controlled trials and quasi-experimental studies Countries: High-income countries only	University or college students, male only	Gender-based violence

References and further reading

Included Studies

Primary studies

• Barone, R. P., Wolgemuth, J. R., & Linder, C. (2007). Preventing sexual assault through engaging college men.Journal of College Student Development, 48(5), 585-594. https://doi.org/10.1353/csd.2007.0045


• Berg, D. R., Lonsway, K. A., & Fitzgerald, L. F. (1999). Rape prevention education for men: The effectiveness of empathy-induction techniques. Journal of College Student Development, 40(3), 219-234.https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1999-05202-002K


• Berliant, J. (2012). Sexual assault prevention: Changing explicit and implicit cognitions of university men [Doctoral dissertation, Carlton University]. Carlton University Institutional Repository.https://repository.library.carleton.ca/concern/etds/hx11xf70n


• Boulter, C. (1998). Effects of an acquaintance rape prevention program on male college students' endorsements of rape myth beliefs and sexually coercive behaviors [Doctoral dissertation, Washington State University]. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering, 59(3-B), 1411.


• Caver, K. (2012). Masculine ideology and college men's reactions to a sexual assault prevention program [Doctoral dissertation, Texas A&M University].https://hdl.handle.net/1969.1/ETD-TAMU-2012-08-11555


• Choate, L. H. (2003). Sexual assault prevention programs for college men: An exploratory evaluation of the men against violence model. Journal of College Counseling, 6(2), 166-176. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2161-1882.2003.tb00237.x


• Darlington, E. (2014). Decreasing misperceptions of sexual violence to increase bystander intervention: A social norms intervention [Doctoral dissertation, University of Oregon]. ProQuest LLC.


• Davis, T. L. (1997). The effectiveness of a sex role socialization-focused date rape prevention program in reducing rape-supportive attitudes in college fraternity men [Doctoral dissertation, University of Iowa]. ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. https://www.proquest.com/dissertations-theses/effectiveness-sex-role-socialization-focused-date/docview/304343237/se-2


• Davis, T. L., & Liddell, D. L. (2002). Getting inside the house: The effectiveness of a rape prevention program for college fraternity men. Journal of College Student Development, 43(1), 35-50.


• Echols, K. L. (1998). Dating relationships and sexual victimization: an intervention program with college freshman males [Doctoral dissertation, University of Alabama]. UMI Company.


• Foubert, J. D. (2000). The longitudinal effects of a rape-prevention program on fraternity men's attitudes, behavioral intent, and behavior. Journal of American College Health, 48(4), 158-163. https://doi.org/10.1080/07448480009595691


• Foubert, J. D., & Marriott, K. A. (1997). Effects of a sexual assault peer education program on men’s belief in rape myths. Sex Roles, 36(3-4), 259-268. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02766271


• Foubert, J. D., & McEwen, M. K. (1998). An all-male rape prevention peer education program: Decreasing fraternity men's behavioral intent to rape. Journal of College Student Development, 39(6), 548-556. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1998-11416-002


• Foubert, J. D., & Newberry, J. T. (2006). Effects of two versions of an empathy-based rape prevention program on fraternity men's survivor empathy, attitudes, and behavioral intent to commit rape or sexual assault. Journal of College Student Development, 47(2), 133-148. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/csd.2006.0016


• Foubert, J. D., Godin, E. E., & Tatum, J. L. (2010). In their own words: Sophomore college men describe attitude and behavior changes resulting from a rape prevention program 2 years after their participation. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 25(12), 2237-2257. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260509354881


• Gidycz, C. A., Orchowski, L. M., & Berkowitz, A. D. (2011). Preventing sexual aggression among college men: An evaluation of a social norms and bystander intervention program. Violence Against Women, 17 (6), 720-742. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801211409727


• Hatcher, A. P. (2009). An evaluation of a sexual assault education program [Doctoral dissertation, Western Michigan University]. ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. https://www.proquest.com/dissertations-theses/evaluation-sexual-assault-education-program/docview/305031970/se-2


• Holz, K. B., Fischer, A. R., & Daood, C. J. (2018). The role of men’s beliefs in shaping their response to a sexual violence prevention program. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 19(2), 308-313. https://doi.org/10.1037/men0000091


• Johansson-Love, J. & Geer, J. H. (2003). Investigation of attitude change in a rape prevention program. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 18(1), 84-99. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260502238542


• Liu, E. (2010). A study of a university-based men-only prevention program (men care): Effect on attitudes and behaviors related to sexual violence [Doctoral dissertation, University of Southern California] ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. https://www.proquest.com/dissertations-theses/study-university-based-men-only-prevention/docview/748223021/se-2


• Lobo, T. R. (2005). Evaluation of a sexual assault prevention program for college men: Effects on self-reported sexually aggressive behavior, social perceptions, and attitudes [Doctoral dissertation, Ohio University].


• Northam, E. J. (1998). The evaluation of a university-based acquaintance rape prevention program [Doctoral dissertation, University of Oklahoma]. UMI Company.


• O'Donohue, W., Yeater, E. A., & Fanetti, M. (2003). Rape prevention with college males: The role of rape myth acceptance, victim empathy, and outcome expectancies. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 18(5), 513-531. https://doi.org//10.1177/0886260503251070


• Phipps, K. A. (2004). Evaluating an empathy-based model of sexual assault prevention [Doctoral dissertation, Central Michigan University]. ProQuest Information and Learning Company.


• Raymond, E. M. (2011). A sexual assault prevention program for men based on cognitive dissonance theory [Doctoral dissertation, University of Wyoming]. ProQuest LLC.


• Schewe, P. A. & O'Donohue, W. (1996). Rape prevention with high-risk males: Short-term outcome of two interventions. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 25(5), 455-471. https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF0243754


• Stephens, K. A. (2008). Rape prevention with Asian /Pacific Islander and Caucasian college men: The roles of culture and risk status [Doctoral dissertation, University of Washington]. ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. https://www.proquest.com/dissertations-theses/rape-prevention-with-asian-pacific-islander/docview/304440606/se-2


• Stephens, K. A., & George, W. H. (2004). Effects of anti-rape video content on sexually coercive and noncoercive college men's attitudes and alcohol expectancies. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 34(2), 402-416. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.2004.tb02554.x


• Stephens, K. A., & George, W. H. (2009). Rape prevention with college men: Evaluating risk status. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 24(6), 996-1013. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260508319366


• Stewart, A. L. (2014). The men’s project: A sexual assault prevention program targeting college men. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 15(4), 481-485. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0033947


• Tarrant, J. M. (1999). Rape education for men: A comparison of two interventions [Doctoral dissertation, University of Missouri-Columbia]. UMI Company.


• Wong, Y. J. McDermott, R. C. Zounlome, N. O. O. Klann, E. M. & Peterson, Z. D. (2020). Self-persuasion: An experimental evaluation of a sexual aggression preventive intervention for U.S. college men. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 37(5-6), 2037-2061. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260520936369

Systematic reviews

• DeGue, S., Valle, L. A., Holt, M. K., Massetti, G. M., Matjasko, J. L., & Tharp, A. T. (2014). A systematic review of primary prevention strategies for sexual violence perpetration. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 19(4), 346-362. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2014.05.004


• Fellmeth G. L. T., Heernan, C., Nurse, J., Habibula, S., & Sethi, D. (2013). Educational and skills-based interventions for preventing relationship and dating violence in adolescents and young adults. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 6. CD004534. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD004534.pub3


• Graham, L. M., Embry, V., Young, B.-R., Macy, R. J., Moracco, K. E., Reyes, H. L. M., & Martin, S. L. (2021). Evaluations of prevention programs for sexual, dating, and intimate partner violence for boys and men: A systematic review. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 0(0), 1-27. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838019851158


• Hudspith, L. F., Wager, N., Willmott, D., & Gallagher, B. (2021). Forty years of rape myth acceptance interventions: A systematic review of what works in naturalistic institutional settings and how this can be applied to educational guidance for jurors. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 24(2), 981-1000. https://doi.org/10.1177/15248380211050575


• Ruvalcaba, Y., Rodriguez, A. L., Eaton, A. A., Stephens, D. P., & Madhivanan, P. (2022). The effectiveness of American college sexual assault interventions in highly masculine settings: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 65, 101760. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2022.101760


• Wright, L. (2017). The effectiveness of male-targeted sexual assault prevention programs: a meta-analysis. [Doctoral dissertation, Indiana University]. Indiana University.


• Wright, L. A., Zounlome, N. O. O., & Whiston, S. C. (2020). The effectiveness of male-targeted sexual assault prevention programs: A meta-analysis. Trauma, Violence & Abuse, 21(5), 859–869. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838018801330

Additional evidence on the intervention

This list contains other evidence that was not eligible for the Intervention Review based on our selection criteria but may provide further information regarding the intervention.

• Vladutiu, C J., Martin, S. L. & Macy, R. J. (2011). College- or university-based sexual assault prevention programs: A review of program outcomes, characteristics, and recommendations Trauma, Violence & Abuse, 12(2), 67-86. https://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1524838010390708