This Intervention Review is primarily based on six systematic reviews and 32 primary studies, published across 39 documents.
The review draws on the best available impact evaluation evidence. The studies were selected against set selection criteria which is based on a rigorous and comprehensive search and screening process. This review includes impact evaluations of the intervention and therefore does not necessarily reflect all evidence on the intervention. Further materials on this intervention are listed under References and Further Reading.
See the Prevention Evidence and Gap Map to explore similar interventions. For details about the individual studies, see the Included Studies section. For further information about the methods informing this review, please see the Intervention Review Technical Report (forthcoming).
This Intervention Review focuses on educational sexual violence prevention interventions for male university and college students. The interventions captured in this review are primarily didactic in nature and may include additional components such as bystander intervention. Programs based primarily on bystander intervention set in tertiary education are the focus of forthcoming Intervention Reviews, which will be hyperlinked here once published.
Suggested citation: ANROWS. (2023). Education programs for male university students to prevent sexual violence. . Evidence Portal Intervention Review. ANROWS.
InterventionInterventions focus on educating male students about sexual violence, with an aim to build empathy for victims and survivors, raise awareness about the influence of gender socialisation and social norms, dispel rape myths, and challenge sexual violence-supportive attitudes |
Key populationsMale university students who have not necessarily perpetrated sexual violence |
Outcomes studiedGender-based violence; behaviours; knowledge, beliefs and attitudes; lived experience; relationships; wellbeing and emotions |
Impact of the interventionOf the 32 primary studies, seven outcomes received an effectiveness rating on our Effectiveness Estimate Tool |
Australian EvidenceNone of the studies presented findings from Australia |
Risk of biasOf the studies with available quantitative data, we rated 2 as very low or low, 0 as moderate, and 15 as high or very high risk of bias on the Risk of Bias tool |
What are the key characteristics of the intervention?
Didactic sexual violence educational interventions for male university students seek to build men's empathy for victims and survivors, raise awareness about the influence of gender socialisation and social norms, dispel rape myths and challenge sexual violence-supportive attitudes. The overarching aim is to prevent young men from potentially perpetrating sexual violence, particularly sexual assault.
The educational nature of these interventions means participants learn about key statistics on the prevalence of sexual violence and its legal definitions, consent and sexual communication, and rape myths. Other topics cover attitudes towards rape, sexually aggressive behaviours and dispelling myths and misperceptions of sexual violence. These interventions generally involve the presentation of educational materials (often shown in a video format), followed by activities like hypothetical scenarios or vignettes of sexual violence and facilitated small group discussions.
These interventions are generally underscored by three main approaches:
![]() Where is the intervention set?Tertiary education settings, including universities and colleges |
![]() How is the intervention delivered?Primarily delivered by male peer educators or trained facilitators. It is delivered face-to-face in groups, often with a video presentation shown in person. One intervention was a self-directed online format |
![]() How frequently is the intervention delivered?These interventions are brief and often delivered in single sessions (n=29, 90%), ranging from 22 minutes to 2 hours in length |
![]() What resources and costs are involved?None of the included studies commented on the costs |
How is the intervention designed or theorised to work?
Many of the primary studies did not describe the theory of change behind the interventions (14 of 32 studies). These interventions hypothesised that teaching cohorts of male students about sexual violence will induce empathy for victims and survivors’ of sexual violence, will, in turn, alter rape-supportive attitudes and ultimately aid in the cessation of sexual violence on campus
For studies that described a theoretical basis, the interventions were primarily based on existing models such as:
Some interventions also relied on a combination of other underlying behavioural theories such as:
Has the impact of this intervention been tested with certain key populations?
This Intervention Review assessed the impact of sexual violence prevention education for male students in tertiary education settings. These interventions were delivered to cohorts of male-only university or college students. Participants were mostly undergraduate-level students based in United States fraternities who were aged 18 to 25 years. The interventions were not designed for any specific cultural or ethnic groups, people with physical or mental disabilities, or health conditions. Many of the interventions were delivered to students who were young, white and single, meaning the impact of the interventions have not been tested with certain key populations.
The table below gives an overview of whether or not the intervention was examined with some key populations. The inclusion of these populations was guided by the National Plan to End Violence against Women and Children 2022-2032 and the Australian National Research Agenda to End Violence against Women and Children: 2023-2028.
🔴 = no studiesPopulation | What do we know about this group? | Degree of knowledge |
---|---|---|
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities |
0 studies. The appropriateness of this intervention with this population has not yet been established. Therefore, we cannot confirm the applicability of this intervention to this population |
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Sexuality and gender diverse / LGBTIQA+ |
0 studies. The appropriateness of this intervention with this population has not yet been established. Therefore, we cannot confirm the applicability of this intervention to this population |
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Specific age groups (including older people, children and young people) |
All studies examined the effectiveness of the intervention with young men aged 18 to 25 years. |
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Culturally and linguistically diverse (CALD) groups |
0 studies. The appropriateness of this intervention with this population has not yet been established. Therefore, we cannot confirm the applicability of this intervention to this population |
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Migrants and refugees |
0 studies. The appropriateness of this intervention with this population has not yet been established. Therefore, we cannot confirm the applicability of this intervention to this population |
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People with disability |
0 studies. The appropriateness of this intervention with this population has not yet been established. Therefore, we cannot confirm the applicability of this intervention to this population |
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This section summarises factors that may contribute to study results, factors that may be considered to facilitate better outcomes, and the transferability of the intervention to an Australian context.
The nature of the available evidence:
Implementation considerations:
Study and location | Design | Intervention | Sample | Outcome categories |
---|---|---|---|---|
Barone et al. (2007) United States | Qualitative study | The Men’s Project, social norms-focused program with multimedia presentation and activities covering socialisation, rape myths, consent, empathy, privilege and oppression. Duration and format: Ten 2-hour weekly group sessions for delivered face-to-face by a facilitator Setting:Tertiary education Cost:Not reported |
N=19 Adult male university students, aged 18-23 years |
Knowledge, beliefs and attitudes; behaviours |
Berg et al. (1999) United States | Randomised controlled trial Comparison: Active intervention; audiotaped testimony of either female or male survivor; and control group participated in the 25-minute didactic component only Qualitative data: No |
Empathy-focused program, with a didactic presentation on facts, an audiotaped testimony of a female or male victim/survivor followed by a discussion Duration and format: A single group session with a 25-minute presentation and 50-minute audiotape and discussion delivered face-to-face by two trained male presenters Setting:Tertiary education Cost:Not reported |
N=54 Adult male university students, mean age 19.2 years |
Gender-based violence; knowledge, beliefs and attitudes; wellbeing and emotions; behaviours |
Berliant (2012) Canada | Randomised controlled trial Comparison: Passive intervention; video based on non-sexual assault content Qualitative data: No |
Sexual assault prevention video, with short clips depicting common rape myths Duration and format: Video delivered face-to-face in a single group session, duration not reported Setting:Tertiary education Cost:Not reported |
N=19 Adult male university students, 88.9% aged 18-23 years |
Gender-based violence; knowledge, beliefs and attitudes; wellbeing and emotions |
Boulter (1998) United States | Randomised controlled trial Comparison: Waitlist Qualitative data: No |
Socialisation-focused program, with a video followed by a discussion about rape myths, gender, norms and legal issues Duration and format: A single 1-hour group session delivered face-to-face by a facilitator Setting:Tertiary education Cost:Not reported |
N=175 Adult male university students and fraternity members, mean age 20.8 years |
Knowledge, beliefs and attitudes |
Caver (2012) United States | Single group pre-post study Comparison: N/A Qualitative data: Yes |
Outcry, empathy-focused program, with education and discussion Duration and format: A single 1-hour group session delivered face-to-face by a trained male university staff member Setting:Tertiary education Cost:Not reported |
N=97 Adult male university students, mean age 19 years |
Knowledge, beliefs and attitudes |
Choate (2003) United States | Single group pre-post study Comparison: N/A Qualitative data: No |
Men against violence model, peer-education training program with content on male socialisation, rape myths, awareness of the prevalence of sexual violence Duration and format: A single 1-hour presentation delivered by a pair of trained male-female facilitators Setting:Tertiary education Cost:Not reported |
N=149 Adult male university fraternity members, mean age 19.7 years, 95.3% white |
Knowledge, beliefs and attitudes; lived experience |
Darlington (2014) United States | Randomised controlled trial Comparison: Active intervention; SWAT plus bystander education; and waitlist control Qualitative data: No |
Sexual Wellness Advocacy Team (SWAT), social norms-focused program, with theatre presentations and exercises to educate about statistics, consent, victim blaming and survivor empathy, helping victims/survivors and resources Duration and format: A single 45-minute face-to-face group session delivered by 5-7 peer educators with weekly 3-hour training for a year Setting:Tertiary education Cost:Not reported |
N=197 Adult male university students and fraternity members, mean age 19.65 years, 76.2% white, 70.1% single, 47.8% had known a survivor, 29.3% had known a perpetrator |
Gender-based violence; Relationships; behaviours; knowledge, beliefs and attitudes |
Davis (1997) United States | Randomised controlled trial Comparison: Active intervention; traditional rape prevention program for men; and passive intervention for control group, video based on non-sexual assault content Qualitative data: No |
Socialisation-focused program, with education about consent and legal definitions several sitcom videos and discussion about sex-role socialisation Duration and format: A single 90-minute group session delivered face-to-face by three trained facilitators Setting:Tertiary education Cost:Not reported |
N=90 Adult male university students, mean age 19.63 years, 58.9% fraternity members |
Knowledge, beliefs and attitudes; lived experience; behaviours |
Davis & Liddell (2002) United States | Randomised controlled trial Comparison: Active intervention; traditional sexual assault prevention program; and no treatment control v Qualitative data: No |
Socialisation-focused program, with education about myths and facts, video, followed by a discussion to raise awareness Duration and format: A single 90-minute group session delivered face-to-face by a facilitator Setting:Tertiary education Cost:Not reported |
N=90 Adult male university students, mean age 19.63 years |
Knowledge, beliefs and attitudes |
De Gue et al. (2014) | Systematic review
Type of analysis: Narrative synthesis 1985-2012 |
Sexual assault prevention interventions N Included studies: 140 Included research design: Randomised controlled trials and quasi-experimental studies Countries: Any country |
Adolescents and adults, all genders | Gender-based violence; Behaviours |
Echols (1998) United States | Quasi-experimental study Comparison: No treatment Qualitative data: : No |
The Gentleman’s Agreement is, empathy-focused program, with a didactic session and group therapy-style activity Duration and format: A single 2-hour group session delivered face-to-face by a team of 5 trained male graduate and undergraduate peer educators Setting:Tertiary education Cost:Not reported |
N=361 Adult male university students, mean age 18.18 years |
Knowledge, beliefs and attitudes |
Fellmeth et al. (2013) | Systematic review Type of analysis: Meta-analysis Not stated-2012 |
Sexual assault and intimate partner violence prevention educational and skills-based interventions N Included studies: 38 Included research designs: Randomised controlled trials Countries: Any country |
Adolescents and adults, all genders | Gender-based violence; Health; knowledge, beliefs and attitudes |
Foubert (2000) United States | Cluster randomised controlled trial Comparison: No treatment Qualitative data: : No |
How to help a sexual assault survivor: What men can do, empathy-focused program, with education about sexual violence definitions, a video describing a male-on-male rape, followed by a discussion about the effects of rape and ways to help victims/survivors Duration and format: Setting:Tertiary education Cost:Not reported |
N=217 Adult male university students and fraternity members, mean age 20.33 years |
Knowledge, beliefs and attitudes; gender-based violence |
Foubert et al. (2010) United States | Qualitative study | The Men’s Program, empathy-focused program, with a video describing a male-on-male rape, followed by a discussion about the effects of rape, ways to help victims/survivors, and additional modules focusing on consent and bystander intervention in alcohol-related situations Duration and format: A single 1-hour group session delivered face-to-face by male undergraduate peer educators Setting:Tertiary education Cost:Not reported |
N=184 Adult male university students, aged 19-21 years |
Knowledge, beliefs and attitudes; behaviours |
Foubert & Marriott (1997) United States | Quasi-experimental study Comparison: No treatment Qualitative data: : No |
How to help a sexual assault survivor: What men can do, empathy-focused program, with education about sexual violence definitions, a video describing a male-on-male rape, followed by a discussion about the effects of rape and ways to help victims/survivors Duration and format: A single group session delivered face-to-face by male peer educators, duration not reported Setting:Tertiary education Cost:Not reported |
N=109 Adult male university students and fraternity members, mean age 18.8 years |
Knowledge, beliefs and attitudes |
Foubert & McEwen (1998) United States | Randomised controlled trial Comparison: No treatment Qualitative data: : No |
How to help a sexual assault survivor: What men can do, empathy-focused program, with education about sexual violence definitions, a video describing a male-on-male rape, followed by a discussion about the effects of rape and ways to help victims/survivors Duration and format: A single 1-hour group session delivered face-to-face by 4 peer educators Setting:Tertiary education Cost:Not reported |
N=155 Adult male university students and fraternity members, mean age 19.9 years |
Gender-based violence; knowledge, beliefs and attitudes |
Foubert & Newberry (2006) United States | Randomised controlled trial Comparison: No treatment Qualitative data: : No |
Intervention 1:
The Men’s Program, empathy-focused program, with a video describing both females and males as victims/survivors of sexual assault, followed by a discussion about the effects of rape, ways to help victims/survivors, with an additional module on consent in alcohol-related situations Intervention 2: The Men’s Program, empathy-focused program, with a video describing a male-on-male rape, followed by a discussion about the effects of rape, ways to help victims/survivors,, empathy-focused program, with a video describing a male-on-male rape, followed by a discussion about the effects of rape, ways to help victims/survivors,with additional modules focusing on bystander intervention in alcohol-related situations Duration and format: A single group session delivered face-to-face by a trained facilitator, duration not reported Setting:Tertiary education Cost:Not reported |
N=261 Adult male university students and fraternity members, mean age not reported |
Gender-based violence; wellbeing and emotions; knowledge, beliefs and attitudes |
Foubert & Perry (2007) United States | Qualitative study | The Men’s Program, empathy-focused program, with a video describing a male-on-male rape, followed by a discussion about the effects of rape, ways to help victims/survivors, and additional modules focusing on consent and bystander intervention in alcohol-related situations Duration and format: A single 1-hour group session delivered face-to-face by trained male peer educators Setting:Tertiary education Cost:Not reported |
N=24 Adult male university students and members of varsity athletic teams or fraternities, mean age not reported |
Knowledge, beliefs and attitudes |
Gidycz et al. (2011) United States | Cluster randomised controlled trial Comparison: Waitlist Qualitative data: : No |
The Men’s Program, social norms-focused program with multimedia presentation and activities covering socialisation, rape myths, consent, empathy, privilege and oppression
Duration and format: A single 1.5-hour group session and a 1-hour booster session after 4 months, delivered face-to-face by 4 undergraduate students, 2 doctoral psychology students and 2 trained male facilitators Setting:Tertiary education Cost:Not reported |
N=635 Adult male first-year university students, 98% aged 18-19 years, 91.8% white |
Gender-based violence; behaviours; knowledge, beliefs and attitudes |
Graham et al. (2021) | Systematic review Type of analysis: Narrative synthesis Not stated-2017 |
Male-targeted sexual violence or intimate partner violence prevention and bystander interventions N Included studies: 8 Included research design: Randomised controlled trials Countries: Any country |
Adolescents and adults, male only | Gender-based violence |
Hatcher (2009) United States | Randomised controlled trial Comparison: Waitlist Qualitative data: : No |
Empathy-focused video, with short clips discussing rape myths, testimonies of female victims/survivors and male perpetrators
Duration and format: A single 45-minute video delivered in a group session Setting:Tertiary education Cost:Not reported |
N=45 Adult male university students, mean age 19.35 years, 77.5% white |
Knowledge, beliefs and attitudes; wellbeing and emotions; relationships |
Holz et al. (2018) United States | Single group pre-post study Comparison: N/A Qualitative data: : No |
Socialisation-focused program, with education on consent, definitions, video testimonies from victims/survivors and advocates
Duration and format: A single 40-minute face-to-face group session delivered by mixed gender undergraduate peer educator pairs Setting:Tertiary education Cost:Not reported |
N=289 Adult male university students, mean age 18.5 years, 80% white |
Gender-based violence; knowledge, beliefs and attitudes |
Hudspith et al. (2021) | Systematic review Type of analysis: Narrative synthesis Search period: 1980-2020 |
Sexual assault prevention educational interventions
N Included studies: 20 Included research design: Randomised controlled trials and quasi-experimental studies Countries: Any country |
General population, all genders | Knowledge, beliefs and attitudes |
Johansson-Love & Geer (2003) United States | Randomised controlled trial Comparison: Passive intervention, video and pamphlet based on non-sexual assault content Qualitative data: : No |
Empathy-focused video, with testimonies from victims/survivors and 2 pamphlets containing statistics and information about men’s positive behaviours and myths
Duration and format: A single 22-minute video and two pamphlets delivered individually by a facilitator Setting: Tertiary education Cost: Not reported |
N=151 Adult male university students, mean age 20.06 years, 84.5% white |
Knowledge, beliefs and attitudes |
Liu (2010) United States | Quasi-experimental study Comparison: No treatment Qualitative data: : No |
Men Creating Attitudes for Rape-Free Environments (Men CARE), socialisation-focused program, with mentoring on men’s violence against women and positive roles men can play, and an activity to create a poster campaign
Duration and format: Two group workshops delivered face-to-face by male mentors including peers, administrators and faculty, duration not reported Setting: Tertiary education Cost: Not reported |
N=803 Adult male university students, 63.7% fraternity members, 70.9% white , mean age not reported |
Behaviours; knowledge, beliefs and attitudes |
Lobo (2005) United States | Randomised controlled trial Comparison: Waitlist Qualitative data: : No |
Socialisation-focused program, with education about sexual assault, vignettes describing risky sexual situations and discussions about consent
Duration and format: A single 2-hour group session delivered face-to-face by a trained male graduate student Setting: Tertiary education Cost: Not reported |
N=342 Adult male university students, 91.8% aged 18-20 years, 89.2% white |
Gender-based violence; behaviours; knowledge, beliefs and attitudes |
Northam (1997) United States | Randomised controlled trial Comparison: No treatment Qualitative data: : No |
Socialisation-focused presentation, with education about statistics, videos, followed by a discussion and information packet of material covered in program Duration and format: A single 1-hour group session delivered face-to-face by a pair of mixed-gender peer educators Setting: Tertiary education Cost: Not reported |
N=180 Adult male university students, mean age 20 years |
Relationships; knowledge, beliefs and attitudes; gender-based violence |
O'Donohue et al. (2003) United States | Randomised controlled trial Comparison: Active intervention; a video-based prevention program, The Date Rape Backlash Qualitative data: : No |
Empathy-based prevention video, with written scripts focused on dispelling rape myths, testimonials from victims/survivors and male perpetrators
Duration and format: A single 45-minute group session delivered in a group face-to-face Setting: Tertiary education Cost: Not reported |
N=102 Adult male university students, mean age 19.7 years, 77.5% white |
Knowledge, beliefs and attitudes; gender-based violence; wellbeing and emotions; behaviours |
Phipps (2003) United States | Randomised controlled trial Comparison: No treatment Qualitative data: : No |
The Men’s Program, empathy-focused program, with education about definitions, a video describing a male-on-male-rape, followed by a discussion about consent, the effects of rape and ways to help victims/survivors
Duration and format: A single 1-hour group session delivered face-to-face by trained male peer facilitators Setting: Tertiary education Cost: Not reported |
N=163 Adult male university students, mean age 20.33 years, 94% white , 47% dating, 23% single |
Knowledge, beliefs and attitudes; wellbeing and emotions; relationships; gender-based violence |
Raymond (2011) United States | Randomised controlled trial Comparison: Passive treatment; a program promoting alternative forms of transportation Qualitative data: : No |
Socialisation-focused program, with cognitive dissonance manipulation, and an activity to create public service announcements dispelling rape myths
Duration and format: A single group session delivered face-to-face by the researcher, duration not reported Setting:Tertiary education Cost:Not reported |
N=61 Adult male university students, mean age 19.7 years |
Knowledge, beliefs and attitudes |
Ruvalcaba et al. (2022) United States | Systematic review Type of analysis: Meta-analysis Search period: Not stated-2018 |
Male-targeted sexual assault prevention interventions
N Included studies: 10 Included research design: Randomised controlled trials and quasi-experimental studies Countries: United States only |
University or college students, male only (specifically male fraternity or athletic teams) | Knowledge, beliefs and attitudes; gender-based violence |
Schewe & O’Donohue (1996) United States | Randomised controlled trial Comparison: No treatment Qualitative data: : No |
Rape-supportive cognitions program, with a video, exercises and hypothetical scenarios, followed by an empathy-based behavioural task
Duration and format: A single 50-minute video shown face-to-face to a groups by a male facilitator Setting: Tertiary education Cost: Not reported |
N=225 Adult male university students, mean age 19.7 years |
Knowledge, beliefs and attitudes; gender-based violence; wellbeing and emotions |
Stephens (2008); Stephens & George (2009) United States | Randomised controlled trial Comparison: Passive intervention; 50-minute videos based on non-sexual assault content Qualitative data: : No |
How to help a sexual assault survivor: What men can do, empathy-focused program, with education about sexual violence definitions, a video describing a male-on-male rape, followed by a discussion about the effects of rape and ways to help victims/survivors
Duration and format: A single group session with 50-minute video presentation delivered face-to-face by a male facilitator Setting: Tertiary education Cost: Not reported |
N=146 Adult male university students studying psychology , mean age 19.3 years, 100% white |
Knowledge, beliefs and attitudes; gender-based violence; wellbeing and emotions |
Stephens & George (2004) United States | Randomised controlled trial Comparison: Passive intervention; 30-minute video based on non-sexual assault content Qualitative data: : No |
Rethinking Rape, socialisation-focused video, with education about sexual violence, rape myths, and testimonials from victims/survivors
Duration and format: A single 28-minute video delivered face-to-face in groups by a male facilitator Setting: Tertiary education Cost: Not reported |
N=45 Adult male university students, aged 18-25 years, 71.1% white |
Knowledge, beliefs and attitudes |
Stewart (2014) United States | Single group pre-post study Comparison: N/A Qualitative data: : No |
The Men’s Program, socialisation-focused program, with education about the effects of sexual assault
Duration and format: Eleven 2-hour weekly group sessions delivered face-to-face by two graduate students Setting: Tertiary education Cost: Not reported |
N=33 Adult male university students, mean age 20.33 years, n=1 FTM trans individual, 86% same-sex attracted, 28% fraternity members |
Knowledge, beliefs and attitudes; behaviours |
Tarrant (1999) United States | Quasi-experimental study Comparison: An active intervention; rape prevention education program; and a no treatment control Qualitative data: : No |
Feminist-based, socialisation-focused program for men, involving interactive exercises to facilitate awareness of gender and masculinity, sexual scripts and rape, and non-consensual sexual activity
Duration and format: A single 60-minute group session delivered face-to-face by a male presenter with a sociology degree and experience presenting rape education Setting: Tertiary education Cost: Not reported |
N=442 Adult male university students, mean age 19.71 years, 92.2% White, 80.3% fraternity members, 19.7% all-male residence hall residents |
Gender-based violence; knowledge, beliefs and attitudes; behaviours |
Wong et al. (2020) United States | Randomised controlled trial Comparison: Two active interventions, a social norms control condition; and a control condition focusing on a sense of belongingness Qualitative data: : No |
Self-persuasion program, with two short social norms-focused videos, and activities addressing values, consent and rape myths Duration and format: A single 45-minute online self-directed program Setting: Tertiary education Cost: Not reported |
N=242 Adult male university students, mean age 20.26 years, 55.2% single |
Gender-based violence; behaviours; relationships |
Wright et al. (2017; 2020) | Systematic review Type of analysis: Meta-analysis Search period: 1970-2014 |
Male-targeted sexual assault prevention interventions N Included studies: 38 Included research design: : Randomised controlled trials and quasi-experimental studies Countries: High-income countries only |
University or college students, male only | Gender-based violence |